LIBRARY 


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MASSACHUSETTS 

AGRICULTURAL 

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INTERNATIONAL 
LIBRARY  OF  TECHNOLOGY 


A  SERIES  OF  TEXTBOOKS    FOR    PERSONS    ENGAGED   IN  THE  ENGINEERING 

PROFESSIONS     AND     TRADES     OR     FOR     THOSE     WHO     DESIRE 

INFORMATION  CONCERNING  THEM.    FULLY  ILLUSTRATED 

AND      CONTAINING      NUMEROUS      PRACTICAL 

EXAMPLES   AND    THEIR    SOLUTIONS 


ESSENTIALS  OF  FRUIT  CULTURE 

VARIETIES  OF  APPLES 

APPLE  CULTURE 

APPLE  PESTS  AND  INJURIES 

APPLE  HARVESTING,  STORING,  AND 

MARKETING 

PEAR  CULTURE 

CHERRIES,  APRICOTS,  AND  QUINCES 


SCRANTON: 
INTERNATIONAL  TEXTBOOK  COMPANY 

124 


G34-.  2. 


V.    / 

Essentials    of    Fruit    Culture:      Copyrigrht,    1912,    by    International    Textbook 
Company. 

Varieties  of  Apples:    Copyright,  1913,  by  International  Textbook  Company. 
Apple  Culture:    Copyright,  1913,  by  International  Textbook  Company. 
Apple  Pests  and  Injuries:    Copyright,  1913,  by  International  Textbook  Company. 
Apple  Harvesting,   Storing,   and  Marketing:    Copyright,   1913,  by  International 
Textbook  Company. 

Pear  Culture:    Copyright,  1913,  by  International  Textbook  Company. 
Cherries,  Apricots,   and  Quinces:    Copyright,  1913,  by  International  Textbook 
Company.  

Copyright  in  Great  Britain. 


All  rights  reserved. 


..^™cs=s?s^.  25901 


124 


PREFACE 


The  International  Library  of  Technology  is  the  outgrowth 
of  a  large  and  increasing  demand  that  has  arisen  for  the 
Reference  Libraries  of  the  International  Correspondence 
Schools  on  the  part  of.  those  who  are  not  students  of  the 
Schools.  As  the  volumes  composing  this  Library  are  all 
printed  from  the  same  plates  used  in  printing  the  Reference 
Libraries  above  mentioned,  a  few  words  are  necessary 
regarding  the  scope  and  purpose  of  the  instruction  imparted 
to  the  students  of — and  the  class  of  students  taught  by — 
these  Schools,  in  order  to  afford  a  clear  understanding  of 
their  salient  and  unique  features. 

The  only  requirement  for  admission  to  any  of  the  courses 
offered  by  the  International  Correspondence  Schools,  is  that 
the  applicant  shall  be  able  to  read  the  English  language  and 
to  write  it  sufficiently  well  to  make  his  written  answers  to 
the  questions  asked  him  intelligible.  Each  course  is  com- 
plete in  itself,  and  no  textbooks  are  required  other  than 
those  prepared  by  the  Schools  for  the  particular  course 
selected.  The  students  themselves  are  from  every  class, 
trade,  and  profession  and  from  every  country;  they  are, 
almost  without  exception,  busily  engaged  in  some  vocation, 
and  can  spare  but  little  time  for  study,  and  that  usually 
outside  of  their  regular  working  hours.  The  information 
desired  is  such  as  can  be  immediately  applied  in  practice,  so 
that  the  student  may  be  enabled  to  exchange  his  present 
vocation  for  a  more  congenial  one,  or  to  rise  to  a  higher  level 
in  the  one  he  now  pursues.  Furthermore,  he  wishes  to 
obtain  a  good  working  knowledge  of  the  subjects  treated  in 
the  shortest  time  and  in  the  most  direct  manner  possible. 

iii 


iv  PREFACE 

In  meeting  these  requirements,  we  have  produced  a  set  of 
books  that  in  many  respects,  and  particularly  in  the  general 
plan  followed,  are  absolutely  unique.  In  the  majority  of 
subjects  treated  the  knowledge  of  mathematics  required  is 
limited  to  the  simplest  principles  of  arithmetic  and  mensu- 
ration, and  in  no  case  is  any  greater  knowledge  of  mathe- 
matics needed  than  the  simplest  elementary  principles  of 
algebra,  geometry,  and  trigonometry,  with  a  thorough, 
practical  acquaintance  with  the  use  of  the  logarithmic  table. 
To  effect  this  result,  derivations  of  rules  and  formulas  are 
omitted,  but  thorough  and  complete  instructions  are  given 
regarding  how,  when,  and  under  what  circumstances  any 
particular  rule,  formula,  or  process  should  be  applied;  and 
whenever  possible  one  or  more  examples,  such  as  would  be 
likely  to  arise  in  actual  practice — together  with  their  solu- 
tions— are  given  to  illustrate  and  explain  its  application. 

In  preparing  these  textbooks,  it  has  been  our  constant 
endeavor  to  view  the  matter  from  the  student's  standpoint, 
and  to  try  and  anticipate  everything  that  would  cause  him 
trouble.  The  utmost  pains  have  been  taken  to  avoid  and 
correct  any  and  all  ambiguous  expressions — both  those  due 
to  faulty  rhetoric  and  those  due  to  insufBciency  of  statement 
or  explanation.  As  the  best  way  to  make  a  statement, 
explanation,  or  description  clear  is  to  give  a  picture  or  a 
diagram  in  connection  with  it,  illustrations  have  been  used 
almost  without  limit.  The  illustrations  have  in  all  cases 
been  adapted  to  the  requirements  of  the  text,  and  projec- 
tions and  sections  or  outline,  partially  shaded;  or  full-shaded 
perspectives  have  been  used,  according  to  which  will  best 
produce  the  desired  results.  Half-tones  have  been  used 
rather  sparingly,  except  in  those  cases  where  the  general 
effect  is  desired  rather  than  the  actual  details. 

It  is  obvious  that  books  prepared  along  the  lines  men- 
tioned must  not  only  be  clear  and  concise  beyond  anything 
heretofore  attempted,  but  they  must  also  possess  unequaled 
value  for  reference  purposes.  They  not  only  give  the  maxi- 
mum of  information  in  a  minimum  space,  but  this  infor- 
mation is  so  ingeniously  arranged  and  correlated,  and  the 


PREFACE  V 

indexes  are  so  full  and  complete,  that  it  can  at  once  be  made 
available  to  the  reader.  The  niimerous  examples  and  explan- 
atory remarks,  together  with  the  absence  of  long  demonstra- 
tions and  abstruse  mathematical  calculations,  are  of  great 
assistance  in  helping  one  to  select  the  proper  formula,  method, 
or  process  and  in  teaching  him  how  and  when  it  should  be  used. 

In  the  present  volume,  the  fundamental  parts  of  the  subject 
and  the  culture  of  apples,  pears,  cherries,  apricots,  and  quinces 
are  treated.  The  factors  affecting  the  fruit  industry  are 
discussed,  and  the  many  methods  of  propagation  and  pruning 
of  fruit  plants,  of  the  preparation  of  fungicides  and  of  poi- 
sonous and  contact  insecticides,  and  of  the  handling  of  spraying 
machinery  are  described  explicitly.  Apples,  the  most  impor- 
tant fruit  commercially,  are  taken  up  first  and  treated  in  great 
detail.  The  different  systems  of  planting,  the  methods  of  man- 
agement, including  tillage,  cover  crops,  sod  culture  and  mulch 
culture,  pruning,  thinning,  fertilization,  the  renovation  of  old 
apple  orchards,  the  prevention  of  injury  from  low  temperatures 
and  from  insect  pests  and  diseases,  the  harvesting,  picking, 
grading,  packing,  storage,  marketing,  and  the  profitable  utiliza- 
tion of  inferior  fruit,  are  discussed  in  a  clear,  comprehensive 
manner.  Pears,  cherries,  apricots,  and  quinces  receive  similar 
•treatment.  The  different  varieties  of  fruits  are  handsomely 
illustrated  in  colors.  This  volume,  together  with  the  succeed- 
ing volume  on  this  subject,  forms  an  eminently  practical  and 
up-to-date  work  on  fruit  growing. 

The  method  of  numbering  the  pages,  cuts,  articles,  etc.  is 
such  that  each  subject  or  part,  when  the  subject  is  divided 
into  two  or  more  parts,  is  complete  in  itself;  hence,  in  order 
to  make  the  index  intelligible,  it  was  necessary  to  give  each 
subject  or  part  a  number.  This  number  is  placed  at  the  top 
of  each  page,  on  the  headline,  opposite  the  page  number; 
and  to  distinguish  it  from  the  page  number  it  is  preceded  by 
the  printer's  section  mark  (§).  Consequently,  a  reference 
such  as  §  16,  page  26,  will  be  readily  found  by  looking  along 
the  inside  edges  of  the  headlines  until  §  16  is  found,  and  then 
through  §  16  until  page  26  is  found. 

International  Textbook  Company 


CONTENTS 


Essentials  of  Fruit  Culture  Section    Page 

Introduction ]  1 

-Factors  Affecting  Fruit  Growing 1  3 

Natural  Factors 1  3 

Market  Factors      .    ; 1  10 

Propagation  of  Fruit  Plants 1  13 

Natural  Propagation 1  13 

Artificial  Propagation 1  14 

Propagation  by  Cuttings 1    .         14 

Propagation  by  Layering '1  17 

Propagation  by  Grafting •■   1  20 

Propagation  by  Budding 1  28 

Pruning  of  Fruit  Plants 1  31 

Principles  of  Pruning 1  31 

Method  of  Pruning 1  37 

Tools  for  Pruning 1  42 

Dressings  for  Wounds 1  47 

Sprays  and  Their  Preparation 2  1 

Poisonous  Insecticides 2  1 

Contact  Insecticides      2  6 

Fungicides       . 2  21 

Combined  Insecticides  and  Fungicides  ...  2  28 

Spraying  Machinery 2  29 

Hand  Sprayers 2  30 

Power  Sprayers 2  35 

Accessories  for  Spraying  Outfit 2  40 

Varieties  of  Apples 

Terms  Used  in  Describing  Varieties   ....  3  1 

Description  of  Varieties 3  6 

Summer  Varieties 3  6 

Fall  and  Winter  Varieties 3  9 


vi  CONTENTS 

Apple  Culture  Section    Page 

Establishment  of  an  Apple  Orchard   ....  4  1 

Selection  of  Site 4  6 

Selection  of  Varieties 4  11 

Selection  of  Nursery  Stock 4  15 

Planting  of  Apple  Trees 4  19 

Systems  of  Planting 4  24 

Use  of  Fillers : 4  31 

Methods  of  Planting .  4  35 

Management  of  Apple  Orchards 5  1 

Tillage  of  Young  Apple  Orchards 5  2 

Tillage  of  Bearing  Apple  Orchards 5  4 

Catch  Crops 5  6 

Cover  Crops 5  10 

Sod  Culture 5  14 

Mulch  Culture 5  17 

Pruning  of  Apple  Trees 5  18 

Types  of  Heads 5  21 

Pruning  for  Pyramidal  Head 5  27 

Pruning  for  Open  Head 5  29 

Thinning  of  Apples 5  35 

Fertilization  of  Apple  Orchards 5  37 

Renovation  of  Old  Apple  Orchards    ....  5  41 

Apple  Pests  and  Injuries 

Injuries  Due  to  Low  Temperature 6    '  1 

Injuries  During  Dormant  Period  of  Plants    .  6  1 
Injuries  During  the  Period  of  Visible  Activity 

of  Plants 6  3 

Prevention  of  Frost  Injuries 6  6 

Insects  Affecting  the  Apple 6  23 

Apple  Diseases 6  61 

Miscellaneous  Injuries 6  77 

Apple  Harvesting,  Storing,  and  Marketing 

Harvesting  of  Apples 7  1 

Picking 7  1 

Grading 7  14 

Packing 7  21 


CONTENTS  vii 

Apple  Harvesting,  Storing,  and  Marketing 

— Continued       •  Section    Page 

Storing  of  Apples 7  40 

Marketing  of  Apples 7  48 

Retail  Marketing       7  48 

Wholesale  Marketing 7  49 

Miscellaneous  Information  About  Marketing      7  52 

Utilization  of  Inferior  Apples 7  56 

Pear  Culture 

Introduction • 8  1 

Classification  of  Pears       8  7 

Botanical  Classification 8  7 

Commercial  Classification    ........  8  8 

Varieties  of  Pears 8  10 

Pear  Pests  and  Injuries 8  28 

Diseases      8  28 

Insects 8  33 

Miscellaneous  Injuries 8  40 

Pear-Orchard  Establishment 9  1 

Size  for  a  Pear  Orchard 9  1 

Location  for  a  Pear  Orchard 9  3 

Choosing  of  Varieties 9  9 

Procuring  of  Trees 9  10 

Planting  of  Trees 9  14 

Pear-Orchard  Management 9  23 

Tillage  of  Pear  Orchards 9  23 

Pruning  of  Pear  Trees 9  26 

Spraying  of  Pear  Trees 9  34 

Harvesting  of  Pears 9  35 

Storing  of  Pears 9  40 

Marketing  of  Pears 9  40 

Cherries,  Apricots,  and  Quinces 

Classes  and  Varieties  of  Cherries 20  1 

Cherry-Orchard  Establishment 20  10 

Size,  Location,  and  Site 20  10 

Selection  of  Varieties 20  11 

Cherry  Nursery  Stock 20  12 


viii  CONTENTS 

Cherries,  Apricots,  and  Quinces — Continued    Section    Page 

Planting  of  Cherries 20  14 

Orchard  Operations       20  15 

Handling  of  the  Cherry  Crop 20  18 

Cherry  Pests  and  Injuries 20  20 

Varieties  of  Apricots 20  24 

Apricot  Nursery  Stock 20  25 

Apricot  Orchard  Operations 20  26 

Apricot  Pests  and  Injimes 20  28 

Harvesting  of  Apricots 20  28 

Marketing  of  Apricots 20  29 

Quinces 20  31 

Important  Varieties  of  Quinces 20  32 

Quince-Orchard  Establishment 20  36 

Management  of  Quince  Orchard 20  39 

Harvesting  and  Marketing  of  Quinces  ...  20  41 

Quince  Pests  and  Injuries 20  42 


ESSENTIALS  OF  FRUIT  CULTURE 

(PART  1) 


INTRODUCTION 

1.  The  growing  of  high-grade  fruit  requires  special  skill 
and  training,  as  it  calls  for  an  intimate  acquaintance  with 
and  an  understanding  of  the  individual  fruit-bearing  plants. 
Many  of  the  general  agricultural  crops,  for  example,  com, 
wheat,  oats,  timothy,  and  clover,  are  grown  in  the  mass  and 
are  usually  observed  as  fields  of  plants,  not  as  individual  plants. 
Little  attention  is  given  to  the  isolation  of  the  plants  in 
such  crops  except  to  sow  a  given  quantity  of  seed  per  acre  in 
order  to  regulate,  in  a  general  way,  the  number  of  plants  that 
occupy  a  given  area  of  ground.  And,  further,  in  the  growing 
of  grain  or  grass  crops,  there  is  usually  no  selection  of  the  best 
plants  or  weeding  out  of  the  poor  ones.  The  seed  is  sowed, 
the  crops  are  harvested,  stored,  and  subsequently  handled  by 
machinery.  Fruit  trees,  vines,  and  berry  plants,  on  the 
contrary,  are  planted  a  certain  distance  apart,  and  the  plants 
are  pruned  and  managed  individually.  The  nurseryman  dis- 
cards and  burns  those  plants  that  are  not  of  a  given  grade  or 
standard;  and  the  manager  of  an  orchard  or  of  a  fruit  planta- 
tion still  further  carries  out  the  selection  of  desirable  plants 
by  choosing  in  the  nursery  the  grade  of  trees  that  he  desires 
to  plant  and  by  discarding,  when  he  comes  to  planting  the 
trees,  those  that  do  not  please  him.  The  product  of  fruit  trees 
is  gathered  individually  and  thus  the  grower  has  opportunity 
to  observe  which  plants  produce  the  best  grade  of  fruit  and 
which  the  inferior  grade. 

COPYRIGHTED    BY    INTERNATIONAL    TEXTBOOK    COMPANY.       ALL    RIGHTS    RESERVED 

§1 

248—2 


2  ESSENTIALS  OF  FRUIT  CULTURE  §  1 

Thus,  it  is  seen  that  all  this  experience  with  individual  fruit- 
producing  plants  gives  the  grower  a  more  intimate  acquaint- 
ance with  and  an  understanding  of  the  activity  of  fruit-bearing 
plants  than  a  farmer  obtains  of  the  general  field  crops  that  he 
grows. 

Another  important  factor  that  has  contributed  to  rendering 
fruit  growing  a  specialized  business  is  the  development  of 
special  fruit-growing  centers.  Formerly  the  fruit  consumed 
in  a  given  region  was  grown  locally,  largely  because  transpor- 
tation facilities  were  such  that  it  was  impossible  to  ship  fruit 
over  long  distances.  If  a  community  were  to  be  supplied  with 
fruit,  it  was  necessary  that  it  be  grown  in  the  immediate 
vicinity  whether  the  soil  or  climate  were  especially  favorable 
to  that  fruit  or  not.  Modem  methods  of  transportation  and 
refrigeration,  however,  enable  growers  to  ship  fruit  over  long 
distances  and  to  hold  it  on  the  market  for  periods  of  several 
weeks,  and  on  account  of  these  changed  conditions,  it  is  possible 
for  the  fruit  grower  of  the  present  time  to  select  locations  where 
the  soil,  climate,  and  other  conditions  are  especially  favorable 
to  the  growing  of  a  given  kind  of  fruit. 

Each  decade  the  consuming  public  is  demanding  a  finer 
product;  competition  is  becoming  very  keen  in  a.n  attempt  to 
produce  the  best;  and  insects  and  diseases  have  spread  from 
former  local  areas  to  large  general  areas  throughout  most 
fruit-growing  sections.  This  means  that  the  fruit  grower  must 
be  awake  to  methods  of  preventing  injury  to  the  fruit  crop  by 
insects  and  fungous  diseases.  In  fact,  to  be  abreast  of  the 
times  today,  the  fruit  grower  must  put  forth  intelligent  effort 
in  every  direction. 


§  1  ESSENTIALS  OF  FRUIT  CULTURE 


FACTORS   AFFECTING  FRUIT   GROWING 


NATURAL  FACTORS 

2.  In  considering  the  natural  factors  that  affect  the  growth 
of  fruit  plants,  it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  a  fruit  tree, 
shrub,  or  vine  is  a  growing,  living  thing;  that  it  is  a  plastic, 
shapable,  living  organism;  and  that  it  is  modified  by  every 
influence  of  its  surroundings.  The  pruning,  cultivating,  spray- 
ing, or  other  treatment  given  to  a  fruit  plant  makes  it  different 
from  what  it  otherwise  would  have  been,  and  whenever  any- 
thing is  done  to  a  tree  or  a  plant,  it  does  something  in  return 
as  a  resiilt.  For  this  reason,  to  iinderstand  fruit  culture,  the 
grower  must  consider  very  carefully  every  phase  of  the  environ- 
ment in  which  a  plant  lives,  for  every  change  either  favors  or 
opposes  its  development. 

3.  Influence  of  Temperature. — Of  all  the  natural  fac- 
tors affecting  the  growth  of  fniit  plants,  temperature  is  the 
most  important.  Temperatiu"e  very  largely  determines  the  area 
over  which  a  given  species  of  fruit  plants  can  be  successfiilly 
grown.  Toward  the  north  a  limit  is  reached  beyond  which 
only  the  hardiest  species  of  fruit  survive,  and  a  little  farther 
north  even  these  cannot  endure  the  winter  cold.  On  the  other 
hand,  temperature  just  as  definitely  sets  a  southern  limit  beyond 
which  a  given  species  does  not  flourish.  The  apple,  pear,  and 
plum,  for  example,  thrive  generally  throughout  the  larger  part 
of  the  United  States.  The  peach  cannot  withstand  so  low  a 
temperature  and,  therefore,  unless  influenced  by  modifying 
conditions,  the  northern  limit  of  successful  peach  culture  is 
somewhat  farther  south  than  that  of  the  previously  mentioned 
fruits.  The  citrus  fruits  thrive  only  adjacent  to  the  semi- 
tropical  districts,  such  as  are  found  in  Florida  and  California. 

It  is  important  for  a  fruit  grower,  in  determining  the  location 
of  a  plantation  or  orchard,  to  know  something  of  the  limits  of 


4  *      ESSENTIALS  OF  FRUIT  CULTURE  §  1 

temperature  which  the  species  of  fruit  that  is  to  be  planted 
will  endure,  and  also  to  know  that  varieties  of  each  species 
differ  in  their  climatic  adaptations.  For  instance,  some 
varieties  of  apples  reach  their  best  development  toward  the 
northern  portions  of  the  United  States ;  other  varieties,  needing 
a  slightly  warmer  temperature,  find  their  most  congenial  place 
in  the  southern  half  of  the  country.  Usually,  a  given  variety 
reaches  its  best  development  within  comparatively  narrow 
limits  of  temperature,  and  certain  varieties  smted  to  one 
extreme  of  climate  are  usually  correspondingly  unsuited  to  the 
other  extreme.  Wherever  winter  temperatures  fall  too  low 
or  summer  temperatures  rise  too  high  for  the  best  development 
of  a  given  variety,  that  variety  should  not  be  grown. 

4.  Influence  of  Altitude. — The  altitude  of  land  also 
has  an  effect  on  the  growth  of  fruit  plants.  The  greater  the 
altitude  at  any  latitude  the  lower  will  be  the  temperature,  and 
plant  growth  will  be  affected  the  same  as  by  a  more  northern 
latitude.  The  effect  of  an  increase  in  altitude  on  the  growth 
of  vegetation  may  be  observed  by  ascending  a  mountainside. 
At  the  base  of  the  mountain  will  be  found  trees  that  are  common 
for  that  latitude,  but  as  a  higher  altitude  is  reached  low, 
dwarfed,  and  scrubby  specimens  of  this  same  species  of  trees 
occur,  and  a  little  farther  up  the  slope  this  species  disappears 
altogether  and  another  species  is  found.  It  is  clear,  therefore, 
that  the  limit  of  altitude  beyond  which  a  given  variety  of  fruit 
wiU  not  thrive  cannot  be  definitely  given.  As  a  general  nile, 
a  high  altitude  in  a  southern  latitude  is  very  similar  in  regard 
to  temperature  as  a  much  lower  altitude  at  a  more  northern 
latitude.  At  extremely  high  altitudes  in  any  latitude  the 
climate  is  too  cold  and  bleak  for  most  fruits  to  thrive. 

A  study  of  elevations,  however,  is  of  great  importance  to 
the  fruit  grower.  One  of  the  most  important  things  to  be  con- 
sidered in  connection  with  elevation  is  atmospheric  drainage, 
that  is,  the  drainage,  or  passage,  of  air  over  the  surface  of  an 
area.  During  the  growing  season,  the  atmosphere  at  the  sur- 
face of  the  earth  is  cooled  rapidly  at  night.  Cold  air,  being 
heavier  than  warm  air,  settles  to  the  earth,  flows  into  low 


§  1  ESSENTIALS  OF  FRUIT  CULTURE  5 

places,  down  slopes  into  ravines  and  valleys  and  over  water 
courses.  This  draining  away  of  air  is  just  as  real  as  the  draining 
away  of  water  from  areas  of  land,  but  unlike  water  drainage, 
the  air  removed  is  immediately  replaced  by  other  air.  Air 
drainage  is  much  less  generally  understood,  however,  than 
water  drainage,  because  air  drainage  is  not  visible  like  water 
drainage.  A  practical  conception  of  air  drainage  may  be  gained 
by  walking  over  an  area  of  uneven  ground  on  a  summer  night. 
On  the  higher  elevations  the  atmosphere  is  usually  warm,  but 
in  the  ravines  a  stream  of  cold  air  is  encountered  which  is 
flowing  off  from  higher  elevations.  On  passing  up  the  opposite 
side  of  the  same  ravine,  the  observer  can  feel  his  head  rise 
above  the  layer  of  cold  air.  Wherever  such  a  condition  occurs, 
the  area  into  which  the  cold  air  settles  is  generally  frosty  and 
unsafe  for  fruit  growing.  The  first  frosts  of  autumn  most 
often  occur  in  ravines  and  low  places,  and  it  is  in  such  places 
that  tender  plants  are  first  killed;  the  same  varieties  often 
remain  unharmed  on  higher  elevations  in  the  same  general 
locality. 

The  depth  of  cold,  frosty  atmosphere  that  will  collect  in 
low  places  depends  on  the  area  of  the  country  drained,  the 
area  over  which  the  cold  air  collects,  and  the  position  and  size 
of  outlets,  just  as  definitely  as  the  size  of  streams,  ponds,  and 
lakes  depends  on  the  territory  that  they  drain  and  the  location 
and  size  of  their  outlets. 

5.  Provided  there  is  still  lower  land  in  the  adjacent  valley 
into  which  the  cold  air  may  drain,  fruit  trees  or  plants  may 
often  be  planted  with  safety  well  toward  the  base  of  a  slope. 
The  wider  the  low  valley,  the  more  the  cold  air  can  spread  out 
and  the  less  likelihood  of  its  rising  upwards  on  the  adjacent 
slope.  A  low  place  or  a  basin  that  has  no  outlet  is  usually  a 
dangerous  place  for  fruit,  as  the  cold  air  cannot  flow  away. 
A  concrete  example  of  the  need  of  atmospheric  drainage  will 
serve  to  illustrate  the  above  point.  A  long,  gentle  slope  was 
cleared  for  a  peach  orchard.  Toward  the  lower  edge  of  this 
slope  a  dense  forest  with  luxuriant  vines  and  undergrowth  was 
left  standing.     When  the  peach  orchard  came  into  bearing  age, 


6  ESSENTIALS  OF  FRUIT  CULTURE  §  1 

the  lower  one-fourth  of  it  adjacent  to  the  standing  forest  in 
the  valley  had  the  blossoms  killed  in  two  successive  springs  by- 
late  frosts.  This  frosted  area  at  its  upper  border  formed 
almost  a  perfect  contour  line  of  given  elevation.  At  its  higher 
edge  some  of  the  trees  had  the  fruit  buds  killed  on  their  lower 
limbs,  and  those  toward  the  top  of  the  trees  escaped  injury. 
Apparently  the  cold  air  at  night,  flowing  down  the  slope,  failed 
to  flow  off  readily  through  the  standing  forest;  the  latter,  with 
its  tangle  of  vines  and  undergrowth,  formed  a  dam  that  held 
a  pocket  of  cold,  frosty  air  in  the  lower  portion  of  the  orchard. 
Finally,  this  adjacent  woodland  was  cut  down,  thus  making  it 
possible  for  the  air  to  flow  into  the  valley  at  the  bottom  of  the 
slope.  As  a  result,  the  frost  line  was  lowered  and  in  subsequent 
springs  the  entire  peach  orchard  escaped  injury  from  frost. 

If  it  is  found  necessary  to  utilize  low-lying  areas  for  fruit 
culture,  late-blooming  varieties  should  be  planted,  as  they 
are  less  liable  than  early  varieties  to  be  injured  by  spring  frosts. 

6.  Influence  of  Bodies  of  Water. — The  presence  of  a 
large  or  a  very  deep  body  of  water  tempers  the  atmospheric 
conditions  of  the  surrounding  region,  and  for  this  reason  has 
a  very  pronounced  influence  on  its  fruit-growing  interests. 
Especially  is  this  true  if  the  fruit  trees  or  plants  are  grov^Ti 
on  that  side  of  the  water  toward  which  the  prevailing  winds 
blow  after  passing  over  the  body  of  water.  The  reason  for 
this  influence  is  that  a  body  of  water  absorbs  very  slowly  a 
large  quantity  of  heat  during  warm  weather  and  gives  up  this 
heat  just  as  slowly  during  cold  weather.  Among  the  many 
regions  so  affected  by  bodies  of  water  may  be  mentioned  a 
strip  of  land  along  the  west  side  of  the  southern  peninsula  of 
Michigan  overlooking  the  east  shore  of  Lake  Michigan.  The 
effects  of  this  lake  are  felt  at  various  points  for  a  distance  of 
from  3  to  20  miles  inland,  the  width  of  the  favored  fruit  area 
depending  on  the  lay  of  the  land.  Where  the  land  adjoining 
the  lake  arises  somewhat  abruptly  to  a  good  height,  its  influence 
does  not  extend  inland  much  beyond  the  top  of  the  adjacent 
hills;  but  where  the  land  rises  gradually,  thus  making  a  wide 
slope  facing  the  lake,  the  influence  extends  inland  over  the 


§  1  ESSENTIALS  OF  FRUIT  CULTURE  7 

entire  slope.  It  is  interesting  to  contrast  conditions  on  the 
west  side  of  this  southern  peninsula  with  those  on  the  east 
side  adjacent  to  Lake  Huron.  Cold  winds,  which  come  mostly 
from  the  west  and  the  northwest,  are  devastating  in  their 
effect  on  the  western  side  of  Lake  Michigan;  in  passing  over 
this  large  body  of  water,  which  does  not  usually  freeze  over  in 
winter,  the  winds  are  so  tempered  that  their  effect  on  the  fruit 
trees  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  lake,  along  the  western  side  of 
the  peninsula,  is  not  damaging;  in  passing  over  the  peninsula, 
the  winds  again  become  very  cold  and  as  a  result  are  dam- 
aging to  the  trees  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  peninsula,  adjacent 
to  Lake  Huron. 

As  a  result  of  the  tempering  effect  of  Lake  Michigan,  the 
peach  can  be  grown  safely  even  as  far  north  as  the  Grand 
Traverse  Bay  district,  on  the  eastern  shore  of  Lake  Michigan, 
but  it  cannot  be  grown  with  any  degree  of  safety  at  that  latitude 
in  the  eastern  part  of  the  state.  A  section  in  the  southern  part 
of  Ontario  adjacent  to  the  Great  Lakes  is  affected  much  the 
same  as  is  the  western  part  of  the  southern  peninsula  of 
Michigan.  Peaches  and  other  tender  fruits  can  be  grown 
much  farther  north  in  this  section  than  they  can  with  safety 
in  any  of  the  distinctly  inland  sections  of  Canada. 

Fruit  trees  growing  on  the  bluffs  overlooking  the  Mississippi 
and  Missouri  rivers  in  the  central  part  of  the  United  States 
frequently  are  not  injured  by  severe  winters,  but  the  same 
varieties  of  trees  growing  a  few  miles  inland  from  the  river 
bluffs  have  their  fruit  buds  killed.  Even  small  inland  lakes, 
especially  if  they  are  deep,  may  produce  a  pronounced  local 
effect  in  tempering  the  climate  of  the  surrounding  slopes. 
This  tempering  effect  on  the  climate  has  a  tendency  to  prevent 
early  autumn  frosts  and  to  retard  the  development  of  fruit 
buds  in  the  spring  so  that  they  do  not  open  sufficiently  to  be 
damaged  by  late  spring  frosts. 

.7.  Influence  of  Winds. — A  certain  degree  of  atmospheric 
circulation  is  desirable  for  fruit  plantations,  because  frosts  are 
less  liable  to  occur  where  the  air  is  in  motion  than  where  it 
is  still.     Most  fruit-producing  plants  are  not  often  seriously 


,8  ESSENTIALS  OF  FRUIT  CULTURE  §  1 

injured  by  moderate  winds,  but  may  be  badly  injured  by 
severe  winds.  In  regions  subject  to  strong  prevailing  winds 
or  in  sections  where  wind  storms  are  common  much  imma- 
ture fruit  is  blown  off  the  trees.  The  trees  tend  to  lean  or 
tip  in  a  direction  opposite  to  that  from  which  the  prevailing 
wind  comes ;  the  branches  of  the  trees  have  a  more  spreading, 
branching  top  on  the  leeward  side  of  the  tree  than  on  the 
windward  side;  and  it  is  not  uncommon  for  cold,  dry  winds 
of  winter  to  cause  evaporation  of  moisture  from  the  twigs  and 
branches  of  the  trees  to  such  an  extent  that  they  suffer  from 
winter  killing,  or  killing  back,  purely  as  a  result  of  the  drying- 
out  process,  and  in  some  unprotected  sections  there  is  danger 
of  the  fruit  trees  being  more  or  less  uprooted  by  the  wind. 

To  prevent  loss  of  fruit  and  injury  to  trees  in  exposed  sections, 
some  orchardists  advocate  the  planting  of  a  row  or  several  rows 
of  trees  on  the  windward  side  of  the  orchard  to  act  as  a  wind- 
break. Some  of  the  advantages  of  such  windbreaks  are  that 
they  lessen  the  quantity  of  windfalls;  prevent  the  whipping 
and  breaking  of  branches,  especially  while  they  are  frozen; 
the  rubbing  off  of  fruit  buds;  and  the  lopsided  growth  of  trees. 
Some  of  the  arguments  against  the  use  of  windbreaks  are  that 
the  roots  of  the  windbreak  trees  encroach  on  the  outer  row 
of  fruit  trees  and  absorb  plant-food  and  moisture  from  the 
soil;  that  the  trees  occupy  land  that  might  be  used  for  other 
purposes;  that  they  sometimes  prevent  cold  air  from  being 
drawn  off,  thus  causing  frost  pockets  on  the  leeward  side  as 
well  as  on  the  windward  side  of  the  windbreak;  and  that  they 
often  harbor  insect  and  fungous  pests. 

In  the  bleak  districts  of  the  United  States,  especially  those 
districts  adjacent  to  the  prairie  regions,  where  windbreaks 
might  seem  to  be  needed  if  they  are  needed  anywhere,  perhaps 
a  majority  of  the  fruit  growers  are  of  the  opinion  that  wind- 
breaks are  not  necessary,  provided  certain  methods  of  orchard 
management  are  practiced.  Some  of  the  methods  recom- 
mended are  as  follows:  (1)  The  trees  may  be  headed  low  so 
that  the  wind  will  cause  less  bending  and  shaking  of  the  trees 
and  fewer  windfalls  than  if  they  are  headed  high.  (2)  They 
may   have    somewhat    denser    heads    in   sections  where   the 


§  1  ESSENTIALS  OF  FRUIT  CULTURE  9 

atmosphere  is  much  in  motion  than  in  more  quiet  localities, 
because  trees  with  low  heads  with  many  branches  seem  better 
adapted  to  resisting  wind  than  tall  trees  having  a  straight  cen- 
tral trunk,  or  leader.  (3)  Some  notably  successful  orchardists 
claim  that,  regardless  of  other  methods  of  avoiding  the  effects 
of  winds,  a  few  more  rows  of  fruit  trees  planted  around  the 
windward  side  of  the  orchard  are  more  profitable  than  are 
forest  trees  planted  as  windbreaks.  If  this  plan  is  followed, 
trees  on  the  windv/ard  side  of  the  orchard  shotdd  be  planted  so 
that  the  rows  of  trees  are  not  continuous  across  the  orchard; 
that  is,  two  or  more  systems  of  planting,  as  explained  in 
another  Section,  should  be  employed. 

8.  Suita,t)illty  of  Soil.— Fruit  is  grown  on  a  great  variety 
of  soils,  varying  from  a  light,  sandy  loam  to  a  heavy  clay. 
The  soil  of  some  of  the  important  fruit-growing  districts  is 
very  sandy,  such  as  exists  in  the  peach-growing  district  of  the 
lower  peninsula  of  Michigan;  the  soils  of  many  of  the  fruit- 
growing regions  in  New  England,  New  York,  and  Pennsylvania 
are  rocky,  gravelly  clays  or  clay  loams ;  and  on  the  bluffs  along 
the  Mississippi  and  Missouri  rivers  the  soil  is  a  loose,  fine, 
rich,  mellow  loam. 

Although  soils  of  varying  physical  condition  may  be  well 
adapted  to  fruit  growing,  experience  has  demonstrated  the 
fact  that,  for  fruit-growing  purposes,  they  must  be  well  drained. 
A  porous  soil  not  only  affords  sufficient  drainage  for  the  rapid 
development  of  the  roots  of  fruit  plants  but  it  enables  the  roots 
of  the  perennial  plants  to  reach  down  and  anchor  themselves 
at  a  good  depth.  Fruit  trees  usually  succeed  in  a  soil  in  which 
they  can  take  deep  root,  but  they  often  fail  to  thrive  in  soils 
in  which  their  root  system  is  confined  to  a  shallow  soil. 

The  character  of  the  subsoil  is  as  important  as  the  character 
of  the  surface  soil;  in  many  places  fruit  trees  thrive  well  in 
very  inferior,  thin  surface  soil,  provided  the  subsoil  is  suffi- 
ciently mellow  and  deep  to  admit  of  the  development  of  a 
good  root  system. 

In  fertility,  fruit  soils  vary  from  those  that  will  not  produce 
general  farm  crops  abundantly  without  a  liberal  addition  of 


10  ESSENTIALS  OF  FRUIT  CULTURE  §  1 

fertilizer  to  those  that  are  naturally  rich  enough  to  support 
for  decades  continued  cropping  to  general  farm  crops.  It  has 
been  determined  by  authoritative  investigations  that  a  mature 
apple  orchard  in  full  bearing  removes,  in  its  leaves,  new  wood 
growth,  and  crop  of  fruit,  a  larger  quantity  of  plant -food  from 
the  soil  than  is  used  in  the  production  of  a  crop  of  com  or  of 
wheat.  Inasmuch  as  only  the  richest  soil  will  bear  cropping 
for  several  successive  years  to  com  or  wheat  without  liberal 
applications  of  fertilizers,  it  would  seem  that  fruit  crops  could 
not  be  produced  on  the  same  soil  year  after  year  without  a 
similar  resort  to  keep  up  the  fertility  of  the  land.  As  a  matter 
of  fact,  many  orchards  located  on  comparatively  poor  soil 
have  yielded  without  being  fertilized  abundant  crops  of  fruit 
throughout  the  life  of  the  orchard;  on  the  other  hand,  liberal 
applications  of  fertilizer  to  soils  of  moderate  fertility  have  not 
increased  the  yield  from  mature  bearing  orchards  sufficiently 
to  pay  the  expense. 

It  seems  safe  to  believe,  therefore,  that  an  orchard  located 
on  soil  of  medium  fertility  will  produce  without  fertilization 
abundant  crops  from  the  time  the  trees  begin  bearing  until 
they  die;  but  distinctly  poor  soil  should  receive  applications 
of  fertilizer,  although  the  actual  fertility  of  the  soil  is  of  minor 
importance  as  compared  with  its  physical  character. 


MARKET  FACTORS 
9.     Location  in  Respect  to  Population. — In  selecting  a 

location  for  a  fruit  plantation,  a  fruit  grower  should  consider 
the  proximity  of  the  location  to  centers  of  population.  First 
of  all,  a  large  center  of  population  furnishes  consumers  and 
insures  a  ready  market  for  a  large  quantity  of  fruit.  Growers 
that  are  able  to  place  their  fruit  in  prime  condition  on  the  large 
markets  are  sure  of  a  ready  sale.  However,  it  is  necessary, 
if  the  fruit  is  to  be  marketed  at  a  profit,  that  it  be  placed  on 
the  market  at  a  reasonably  low  cost  of  production,  transporta- 
tion, etc.  It  is  important  that  abundant  labor  should  be 
secured  for  picking,  packing,  and  preparing  the  fruit  crop  for 
market.     Ordinarily,  such  labor  is  readily  available  in  large 


§  1  ESSENTIALS  OF  FRUIT  CULTURE  11 

centers  of  population.  Formerly,  when  fruit  was  marketed 
locally,  large  fruit  plantations  were  practically  out  of  the 
question,  except  where  much  additional  labor  could  be  secured 
at  the  time  of  harvesting.  In  recent  years,  however,  in  certain 
isolated  sections,  itinerant  labor  may  be  secured  for  handling 
the  crop  at  the  ripening  period.  For  instance,  pickers  and 
packers  in  large  groups  frequently  traverse  the  country  from 
south  to  north,  following  the  ripening  of  the  strawberry  crop, 
or  the  peach  crop,  or  both.  For  example,  as  the  strawberry 
crop  begins  to  ripen  in  Texas,  pickers  and  packers  are  available 
who  camp  adjacent  to  the  plantations  and  harvest  the  crop. 
As  the  southern  strawberries  are  harvested,  these  same  people 
move  northwards  through  Arkansas  and  Missouri  and  camp 
in  the  various  strawberry  districts  until  the  late  strawberry 
crops  of  the  north  have  been  put  on  the  market.  Peaches  are 
harvested  and  handled  in  a  similar  manner  and  often  by  the 
same  crew  that  picked  the  strawberry  crop.  The  grower  who 
lives  on  the  line  of  migration  of  such  a  body  of  fruit  pickers 
and  packers  may  readily  handle  his  crop,  even  though  it  is 
grown  at  considerable  distance  from  a  center  of  population. 

10.  Shipping  Facilities. — ^Formerly,  the  fruit  supply  of 
the  country  was,  for  the  most  part,  grown  adjacent  to  the 
district  in  which  it  was  consumed.  Even  the  less  perishable 
fruits  like  apples  were  rarely  shipped  any  considerable  distance. 
There  might  be  an  excess  of  fruit  in  one  section  of  the  country 
and  a  dearth  of  it  in  another  section,  but  a  lack  of  proper 
facilities  for  shipping  prevented  proper  distribution  and  the 
surplus  of  the  one  district  was  not  available  to  meet  the  needs 
of  another  district.  In  recent  decades  improved  methods  of 
packing,  cooling,  shipping,  refrigeration,  etc.,  have  rendered 
it  possible  to  distribute  fruit  over  large  areas.  It  is  possible, 
therefore,  to  grow  fruit  profitably  a  long  distance  from  market, 
provided  shipping  facilities  are  good,  and  growers  are  enabled 
to  select  locations  where  soil  or  climatic  conditions  particularly 
favor  the  growing  of  a  given  kind  or  variety  of  fruit.  As  a 
result,  special  fruit-growing  centers  are  developing  almost 
regardless  of  their  proximity  to  large  markets.     For  example, 


12  ESSENTIALS  OF  FRUIT  CULTURE  §  1 

certain  areas  in  the  western  part  of  the  United  States  are 
famous  for  their  fruit,  which  is  shipped  to  the  eastern  markets; 
early  strawberries  produced  in  the  Gulf  States  are  shipped  to 
the  northern  centers  of  population;  and  the  citrus  fruits  of 
California  reach  the  eastern  markets  and  those  of  Florida  are 
sent  practically  to  any  part  of  the  United  States  and  Canada. 
Although  it  is  possible  to  transport  firm  fruit  over  long 
distances,  and  even  perishable  fruits  over  distances  which  the 
grower,  20  years  ago,  did  not  even  contemplate  could  become 
possible,  at  the  same  time  adequate  transportation  facilities 
should  be  considered  in  the  selection  of  a  fruit  plantation. 
Transportation  to  exceedingly  distant  markets  is  expensive 
and  should  be  balanced  either  by  cheap  land  or  by  soil  and 
climatic  conditions  that  are  exceptionally  favorable  to  the 
production  of  fruit.  A  grower  should  be  near  a  shipping  point 
because  it  is  highly  important  that  he  avoid,  as  far  as  possible, 
long  hauls  of  fruit  over  bad  country  roads.  Every  mile  traveled 
on  a  bad  coimtry  road,  especially  with  perishable  fruits,  adds 
greatly  to  the  injury  of  the  fruit  by  bruising.  In  fact,  it  is 
more  important  to  be  near  a  shipping  point  than  it  is  to  be 
near  the  market  where  perishable  fruit  is  consumed.  The 
strawberry  growers  of  the  central  part  of  the  United  States 
who  are  located  from  |  to  1  mile  from  their  shipping  station 
may  be  better  able  to  deliver  berries  in  good  condition  to 
eastern  markets  than  are  the  growers  who  live  5  miles  from 
the  markets  but  on  a  bad  country  road.  Peach  growers  realize 
that  it  injures  peaches  more  to  draw  them  2  miles  over  a  rough 
country  road  than  to  ship  them  hundreds  of  miles  by  railroad. 
This  is  one  of  the  reasons  that  fruit-growing  interests  group 
about  definite  centers  or  shipping  points. 


§  1  ESSENTIALS  OF  FRUIT  CULTURE  13 


PROPAGATION  OF  FRUIT  PLANTS 


NATURAL  PROPAGATION 

11.  Increasing  the  number  of  plants  of  any  species  is 
known  as  propagation.  Plants  propagate  naturally  in  two 
distinct  ways ;  namely,  by  seeds  and  by  plant  division,  and  from 
these  natural  methods  certain  artificial  methods  of  propagation 
have  been  developed  and  are  now  commonly  practiced  in  fruit 
culture. 

12.  Propagation  by  Seeds. — All  varieties  of  fruit  plants 
originally  produced  seed  and  the  majority  do  so  at  the  present 
time,  but  as  the  seed  in  most  cases  is  produced  by  the  union  of 
elements  from  flowers  of  two  plants,  the  new  plant  will  have 
some  of  the  characters  of  both  parent  plants  and  may  resemble 
neither  of  them  very  closely.  For  example,  a  flower  on  a 
Northern  Spy  apple  tree  growing  in  an  orchard  will  very  proba- 
bly receive  pollen  from  a  tree  other  than  a  Northern  Spy;  if  the 
seeds  from  the  fruit  produced  by  this  flower  are  planted  they 
will  produce  trees  that  will  probably  have  some  of  the  char- 
acters of  the  Northern  Spy  and  some  of  the  characters  of  the 
tree  from  which  the  pollen  came;  and  it  will  be  impossible  to 
know  in  advance  what  the  fruit  will  be  like.  For  this  reason 
fruit  plants  are  not  usually  grown  from  the  seed  except  for 
experimental  purposes;  propagation  by  division  in  one  of  its 
various  forms  is  generally  employed  for  propagating  fruits. 

13.  Propagation  "by  Division. — Certain  plants  have  the 
habit  of  reproducing  by  offshoots  from  the  parent  plant,  which 
is  known  as  propagation  by  division.  Many  of  the  fruit 
plants  propagate  naturally  in  this  way.  For  example,  the  red 
raspberry  produces  an  underground  stem,  known  as  a  root 
stock,  which  extends  some  distance  from  the  original  plant; 
roots  and  sprouts  are  formed  at  intervals  along  the  stem,  pro- 


14  ESSENTIALS  OF  FRUIT  CULTURE  §  1 

ducing  new  plants;  the  strawberry  sends  out  on  the  surface  of 
the  ground  long  trailing  branches  known  as  runners  that  take 
root  at  intervals  and  form  new  plants;  and  the  black  raspberry 
produces  long,  drooping  canes,  which  take  root  when  the  tips 
touch  the  ground  and  are  then  called  stolons.  As  soon  as 
offshoots  sent  out  in  this  way  have  become  rooted  they  may 
be  separated  from  the  parent  plant  and  transplanted.  A  plant 
produced  by  any  method  of  division,  being  simply  a  part  of 
the  original  plant,  has  the  characters  and  produces  the  same 
kind  of  fruit  as  the  parent  plant. 


ARTIFICIAL  PROPAGATION 


PROPAGATION    BY    CUTTINGS 

14.  A  detached  portion  of  a  plant  containing  a  growing 
point  or  bud  placed  in  soil  or  water  for  the  purpose  of  pro- 
ducing a  new  plant  is  called  a  cutting.  The  fruit  plants 
most  commonly  propagated  by  the  use  of  cuttings  are  the 
grape,  the  currant,  the  gooseberry,  and  the  cranberry.  Cuttings, 
so  far  as  fruit  propagation  is  concerned,  may  be  divided  into 
two  classes;  hardwood  cuttings  and  root  cuttings. 

15.  Hardwood  Cuttings. — The  majority  of  fruit-plant 
cuttings  belong  to  the  class  of  hardwood  cuttings,  which  are 
cuttings  from  the  ripened  wood  of  a  deciduous  plant  of  the 
present  or  previous  season's  growth.  The  common  kinds  of 
hardwood  cuttings  are  simple  cuttings,  heel  cuttings,  mallet 
cuttings,  and  single-eye  cuttings.  These  are  shown  respectively 
in  Fig.  1  (a),  (b),  (c),  and  (d). 

A  simple  cutting  is  the  most  common  form  of  hardwood 
cutting  and  consists  of  a  straight  part  of  a  shoot  or  cane  con- 
taining two  or  more  buds.  A  simple  cutting  is  usually  cut 
off  at  the  lower  end  just  below  a  bud,  because  at  this  point 
roots  will  develop  most  readily;  at  the  top  it  is  cut  off. some 
distance  above  a  bud. 

A  heel  cutting  consists  of  the  lower  part  of  a  branch  con- 
taining two  or  more  buds  and  is  cut  off  in  such  a  way  that  a 


ESSENTIALS  OF  FRUIT  CULTURE 


15 


small  part  of  the  parent  branch  remains  on  the  cutting,  forming 
what  is  known  as  the  heel. 

A  mallet  cutting  is  produced  by  cutting  through  the 
parent  branch  above"  and  below  a  shoot  containing  two  or 
more  buds,  leaving  a  section  of  the  parent  branch  at  the  base 
of  the  cutting.  An  advantage  in  the  use  of  heel  and  of  mallet 
cuttings  is  a  somewhat  greater  certainty  of  developing  roots. 
There  is,  however,  one  disadvantage,  which  is  that  only  one 
cutting  can  be  made  from  each  lateral  branch. 


Fig.  1 

A  single-eye  cutting  consists  of  a  small  part  of  a  branch 
containing  only  one  bud.  Such  cuttings  are  sometimes  made 
when  it  is  necessary  to  get  the  largest  number  of  cuttings 
possible  from  a  Hmited  supply  of  stock.  Single-eye  cuttings 
are  commonly  started  under  glass  either  in  a  greenhouse  or  in  a 
hotbed  where  bottom  heat  can  be  supplied,  and  the  cuttings 
are  placed  in  the  ground  at  such  a  depth  that  the  bud  will 
be  about  an  inch  below  the  surface  of  the  soil,  which  must  be 
kept  moist. 


16 


ESSENTIALS  OF  FRUIT  CULTURE 


§1 


16.  Hardwood  cuttings  should  be  made  during  the  fall 
or  early  winter  while  the  wood  is  dormant.  As  fast  as  made 
they  should  be  tied  in  bundles  of  from  twenty-five  to  fifty, 
with  the  butts  all  one  way,  and  the  bundles  should  be  buried 
in  a  trench  with  the  butts  up  and  be  covered  with  2  or  3  inches 
of  soil  or  sand.  The  top  buds  are  thus  protected  from  freezing 
and  the  butts  are  near  the  surface  where  the  sim  will  warm 


(a) 


(b) 


(c) 


Fig.  2 


them  in  the  spring  and  stimulate  root  growth.  Cuttings  may 
be  buried  in  sand,  sawdust,  or  moss  and  kept  over  winter  in  a 
cool  cellar.  In  the  spring  the  bimdles  are  taken  up  and  placed 
in  a  trench  dug  as  shown  in  Fig.  2.  They  are  set  about  3  inches 
apart,  with  only  the  topmost  bud  or  buds  above  the  surface 
of  the  ground,  and  the  soil  is  then  replaced  in  the  trench  and 
thoroughly  packed.     In  Fig.  2  (a)  are  shown  simple  cuttings 


1 


ESSENTIALS  OF  FRUIT  CULTURE 


17 


and  in  (b)  mallet  cuttings  set  in  place  in  a  trench;  in  (c)  is 
shown  the  position  of  the  cuttings  after  the  soil  is  replaced  in 
the  trench.  During  the  summer  the  cuttings,  if  all  conditions 
have  been  favorable,  develop  roots  and  leaves,  and  in  the  fall 
or  the  following  spring  are  ready  to  be  transplanted  to  a  per- 
manent location. 

17.  Root  Cuttings. — Cuttings  made  from  either  roots 
or  root  stocks  are  called  root  cuttings.  Roots  as  large  as  a 
lead  pencil  or  larger  are  ordinarily  selected,  although  cuttings 
from  smaller  roots  will  grow.  Of  the  fruit  plants,  blackberries 
and  some  of  the  raspberries  are  frequently  propagated  by  root 
cuttings.  The  cuttings  should  be  made  from  2  to  4  inches 
in  length.  They  are  cut  in  the  autumn  after  the  leaves  have 
fallen  and  before  severe  frost,  and  are  stored  in  moss  in  a  cool 
place  until  spring.  In  the  spring  they  are  planted  horizontally 
about  2  inches  apart  in  a  well-prepared  bed  and  covered  with 
about  3  inches  of  well  pulverized  soil.  One  summer's  growth 
will  produce  good  plants  for  setting  out. 


PROPAGATION    BY    LAYERING 

18.     Placing  a  branch  in  contact  with  the  earth  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  cause  it  to  throw  out  roots  and  shoots  while  it  is 


Fig.  3 


still  attached  to  and  nourished  by  the  parent  plant  is  called 
layering,  and  the  branch  so  placed  is  called  a  layer.     There  are 


24S— 3 


18  ESSENTIALS  OF  FRUIT  CULTURE  §  1 

several  methods  of  layering,  which  differ  simply  in  matters  of 


Fig.  4 

detail  adapted  to  the  nature  of  the  plant  to  be  propagated. 

A  form  known  as  tip 
layering  is  illustrated 
in  Fig.  3.  A  branch,  or 
cane,  is  bent  down  to 
the  ground  and  the  tip 
covered  with  soil. 
Roots  and  sprouts  will 
then  be  thrown  out 
forming  young  plants, 
which  may  be  separated 
from  the  parent  plant. 
The  black  raspberry  is 
an  example  of  a  fruit 
plant  that  may  be  prop- 
agated in  this  way. 

What    is    known    as 

vine  layering  is  shown 

in   Fig.  4.     A    vine    is 

ifjG  5  bent  to  the  ground  and 


'iii^^W^M^'^'Si^^-: 


§1 


ESSENTIALS  OF  FRUIT  CULTURE 


19 


covered  with  earth  in  such  a  way  as  to  leave  a  small  part 
exposed  at  intervals.  Sprouts  will  form  on  the  exposed  parts 
and  roots  on  the  covered  parts.  After  the  young  sprouts  are 
thoroughly  rooted  they  may  be  separated  from  each  other  and 
from  the  parent  plant.  In  some  cases  the  vine  is  buried 
throughout  its  entire  length  in  a  shallow  trench.  Grapes  are 
often  propagated  in 
this  way. 

Branch  layering 
is  shown  in  Fig.  5.  In 
this  case  a  suitable 
branch  is  bent  over 
and  a  portion  near  the 
outer  end  buried  in 
the  earth  and  fastened 
with  a  forked  pin;  the 
outer  end  of  the 
branch  is  then  bent  to 
an  upright  position 
and  fastened  to  a 
stake.  A  notch  or 
ring  is  often  cut  in  the 
bark  where  the  branch 
is  under  the  surface 
of  the  ground.  This 
seems  to  encourage  the 
production  of  roots. 
Apple  trees  have  been 
propagated  in  this 
way. 

A  method  known  as 
mound  layering  is  often  used  for  the  propagation  of  plants 
that  stool — ^that  is,  send  up  many  stems  or  shoots  from  a  single 
root.  This  method  of  layering  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  6.  The 
soil  is  mounded  up  to  cover  the  base  of  the  stems,  which  throw 
out  roots  as  shown  in  (a) ;  when  roots  have  formed  the  sterns 
may  be  removed  from  the  original  plant  and  set  out  in  a 
permanent  location.     A  plant  is  often  cut  back  close  to  the 


'Mm. 


Fig.  6 


20 


ESSENTIALS  OF  FRUIT  CULTURE 


§1 


ground  the  season  before  it  is  to  be  mound  layered  to  cause  it 
to  send  up  a  large  number  of  shoots,  as  shown  in  (6). 

The  soil  used  in  layering  shoiild  be  fertile  and  moist.  Plants 
are  most  often  layered  in  the  spring;  by  the  following  spring, 
or  in  some  cases  by  midsummer  of  the  same  year,  they  are 
ready  to  be  transplanted. 


PROPAGATION    BY    GRAFTING 

19.  A  method  of  propagation  commonly  used  for  many 
of  the  tree  fruits  is  known  as  grafting.  It  is  the  causing  of 
a  twig,  called  a  scion,  cut  from  one  plant  to  become  part  of 
another.  The  plant  to  which  the  scion  is  joined  is  called  the 
stock.     The  different  kinds  of  grafting  may  be  classified,  in 


Fig.  7 


respect  to  the  place  where  the  scion  is  attached  to  the  stock, 
as  root  grafting,  or  the  insertion  of  the  scion  on  the  root  of  the 
stock;  crown  grafting,  or  the  insertion  of  the  scion  in  the  stock 
at  the  surface  of  the  ground;  stem  grafting,  or  the  insertion 
of  the  scion  in  any  part  of  the  main  stem  or  trunk;  and  top 
grafting,  or  the  insertion  of  the  scion  in  the  top  or  branches. 
Grafting  is  also  classified,  in  respect  to  the  way  in  which  the 
union  between  the  scion  and  the  stock  is  made,  as  cleft  grafting, 
kerf  grafting,  hark  grafting,  whip  grafting,  splice  grafting,  and 
veneer  grafting. 

20.     Cleft   Grafting. — The  method  commonly  used  for 
renewing  the  tops  of  mature  trees  is  known  as  cleft  grafting. 


§1 


ESSENTIALS  OF  FRUIT  CULTURE 


21 


A  branch  is  severed  with  a  saw,  care  being  taken  not  to  loosen 
the  bark  from  any  part  of  the  stub;  the  exposed  end  is  then 
spHt  with  a  broad,  thin  chisel  or  with  a  grafting  tool  such  as 
shown  in  Fig.  7  (a),  and  the  cleft  is  spread  as  illustrated  in  (6) 
with  a  wedge  or  the  wedge-shaped  prong  on  the  grafting  tool 
so  that  the  scion  may  be  inserted.  Scions  should  contain  two 
or  three  buds  and  should  be  of  the  previous  season's  growth. 
They  should  be  cut  during  the  late  fall  or  early  winter  and 
stored  in  a  cellar  or  other  cool  place  where  they  will  be  per- 
fectly dormant.  The  grafting  is  done  in  the  early  spring  before 
the  buds  start.  The  scion  is  cut  to  a  wedge  shape  at  the  butt 
end  as  shown  in  Fig.  8  (a),  one  edge  of  the  wedge  being  thicker 
than  the  other,  and  is  set  into 
the  stock  with  the  thickest  edge 
of  the  wedge  to  the  outside; 
this  will  hold  the  sdon  firmly 
in  place  and  the  greatest  pres- 
sure will  come  at  the  outer 
edges,  where  growth  takes  place. 
The  lowest  bud  on  the  scion 
shoiild  be  just  above  the  upper 
edge  of  the  wedge  so  that  it  will 
come  close  to  the  top  of  the 
stock,  when  the  scion  is  in- 
serted. In  order  to  have  growth 
there  must  be  contact  between  the  growing  tissue  of  the  scion 
and  of  the  stock  so  that  there  may  be  an  interchange  of  sap 
between  the  two  parts.  The  growing  part  of  a  stem  is  the 
outer  part  of  the  wood  just  underneath  the  bark.  In  order  to 
be  sure  that  the  growing  tissues  come  in  contact,  the  scion  is 
sometimes  set  at  a  shght  angle  so  that  the  growing  wood  of 
the  scion  must  cross  that  of  the  stock  at  some  point. 

In  making  a  cleft  graft,  two  scions  are  set  in  one  stock,  one 
at  each  edge  of  the  cleft,  as  shown  in  Fig.  8  (&).  If  both  scions 
grow,  the  least  desirable  one  may  be  cut  off.  To  complete  the 
graft  all  cut  surfaces  are  covered  with  grafting  wax,  as  shown 
in  (c) ;  this  is  pressed  closely  on  to  the  surfaces  so  that  on 
■cooling  it  will  form  a  covering  impervious  to  air  and  moisture. 


Fig.  8 


22 


ESSENTIALS  OF  FRUIT  CULTURE 


1 


Good  grafting  wax  can  be  made  of  the  following  ingredients: 
Resin,  4  pounds;  beeswax,  2  pounds;  tallow  or  linseed  oil, 
1  pound.  If  it  is  desired  to  have  the  wax  of  a  greater  hardness 
than  will  result  from  this  formula,  the  resin  may  be  increased  to 
5  pounds  and  the  beeswax  to  2|  pounds.  The  resin  and  bees- 
wax should  be  broken  into  small  pieces  and  melted  with  the 
tallow  or  in  the  linseed  oil.  When  thoroughly  melted,  the 
liquid  should  be  poured  into  cold  water,  and  when  cool  enough 


Tic    ) 

to  handle  should  be  pulled  and  worked  until  it  is  light-colored 
and  grained.  The  hands  should  be  well  greased  before  the 
wax  is  handled.  In  applying  the  wax,  the  heat  of  the  hand 
is  sufficient  to  soften  it;  it  may  be  melted  and  applied  with 
a  brush,  but  care  in  this  case  is  necessary  to  avoid  getting  the 
wax  heated  enough  to  cause  injury 

21.     Formerly,  much  emphasis  was  placed  by  orchardists 
on  the  idea  that  only  branches  not  exceeding  1|  inches  in 


§1 


ESSENTIALS  OF  FRUIT  CULTURE 


23 


diameter  should  be  cleft  grafted.  This  may  have  been  due 
to  the  supposition  that  the  young  scion  coiild  not,  in  growing, 
completely  cover  over  the  end  of  a  large  stock.  However,  a 
number  of  successful  orchardists  at  the  present  time  claim 
that  scions  may  be  grafted  with  excellent  results  on  stocks  up 


to  6  inches  in  diameter.  Fig.  9  shows  an  old  tree  top  worked 
by  the  usual  method  of  cleft  grafting.  As  seen  from  the 
illustration,  this  method  of  renewing  an  old  tree  requires  a 
large  number  of  scions,  and  in  order  to  secure  stocks  not  over 
1|  inches  in  diameter  the  branches  must  be  cut  off  at  a  consid- 


24 


ESSENTIALS  OF  FRUIT  CULTURE 


§1 


erable  distance  from  the  ground.  This  leaves  opportunity  for  a 
large  number  of  small  lateral  branches  below  the  graft.  These 
must  be  pruned  off  after  the  scions  start  or  the  tree  will  bear 
some  of  its  own  fruit.  This  method  of  top  working  large  trees 
necessarily  produces  high  tops,  which  is  a  disadvantage  in 
spraying  and  in  gathering  the  fruit. 

Fig.  10  illustrates  a  large  tree  top  worked  by  cutting  off 
large  limbs,  leaving  stubs  5  or  6  inches  in  diameter  in  which 
the  scions  are  set.  One  limb  is  left  uncut  to  furnish  foliage 
for  nourishing  the  roots.     When  the  scions  are  well  started 


Fig.  11 


this  limb  should  be  cut  off  and  the  stock  grafted  if  desired. 
This  method  of  top-grafting  large  trees  has  the  advantage  of 
producing  a  lower  tree  than  can  be  produced  by  the  preceding 
method  mentioned,  and  the  entire  top  will  be  of  the  desired 
variety,  as  all  water  sprouts  that  spring  from  the  branches 
below  the  graft  may  be  easily  reached  and  removed.  Orchard- 
ists  who  have  used  this  method  of  top  renewal  claim  that 
scions  grafted  on  stocks  from  5  to  6  inches  in  diameter  are 
just  as  likely  to  live  as  those  grafted  on  small  stocks  and  will 
have  a  much  more  rapid  growth. 


1 


ESSENTIALS  OF  FRUIT  CULTURE 


25 


22.  Kerf  Grafting. — In  connection  with  the  grafting  of 
large  stocks,  a  method  of  setting  the  scion  that  has  been  used 
successfully  in  Europe  for  many  years  and  is  known  as  kerf 
grafting,  has  been  introduced  into  America.  By  this  method, 
the  stock  is  not  split,  but  a  kerf,  or  notch,  as  long  as  the  part 
of  the  scions  to  be  inserted  is  cut  with  a  pruning  saw  as  illus- 
trated in  Fig.  11  (a);  the  edges  of  the  notch  are  then  carefully 
smoothed  with  a  sharp  knife  as  shown  in  (b).  The  scion  is 
cut  to  fit  the  notch  and  is  driven  into  place  as  shown  in  (c); 
the  cut  surfaces  are  then  covered  with  grafting  wax  as  illus- 
trated in  (d).  It  is  claimed  as  an  advantage  of  this  method 
of  grafting  over  the  cleft  method  that  the  wound  will  heal 
over  more  quickly  and  tjiat  the  probability  of  growth  is  just  as 
great  as  in  the  case  of  the  ordinary  cleft  graft.  A  disad- 
vantage of  this  method  is  that  the  scion  is  not  held  so  firmly 
by  the  notch  as  it  is  by  the  cleft.  However,  orchardists  who 
have  tried  this  method  seem  to  prefer  it  to  the  ordinary  cleft 
method. 


23.  Bark  Grafting. — A  method  of  grafting  that  does 
not  injure  the  stock  so  much  as  cleft  grafting  is  illustrated  in 
Fig.  12.  This  method  is  known  in  America  as 
bark  grafting  and  in  England  and  France  as 
crown  grafting.  The  lower  ends  of  the  scions  are 
cut  to  a  very  thin  wedge  and  are  inserted  betv\reen 
the  bark  and  the  wood  of  the  stock  after  the 
branch  has  been  cut  off  as  for  the  cleft  graft. 
After  the  scions  have  been  inserted  the  bark  is 
securely  bound  with  raffia  or  waxed  string  and 
grafting  wax  is  used  as  in  the  cleft  graft. 

The  raffia  used  in  binding  many  forms  of  grafts 
is  a  product  of  an  oriental  palm  and  may  be  pur-  fig.  12 
chased  at  a  very  reasonable  price.  It  is  customary  to  lay  the 
raffia  on  the  ground  or  in  some  other  damp  place  over  night 
before  using,  in  order  to  soften  it  so  that  the  operator  may 
flatten  out  the  strands,  which  should  be  cut  to  the  desired 
length  before  the  work  of  wrapping  begins.  After  2  or  3  weeks 
the  raffia  bands  are  cut,  so  that  they  will  not  interfere  with  the 


26 


ESSENTIALS  OF  FRUIT  CULTURE 


§1 


growth  of  the  stock.  Waxed  string  is  prepared  by  putting  a 
ball  of  No.  18  knitting  cotton  into  a  kettle  of  melted  grafting 
wax.  In  5  minutes  it  will  be  thoroughly  satiu^ated  and  may  be 
kept  indefinitely.  When  waxed  string  is  used  for  binding  it  is 
not  often  necessary  to  cut  the  bands,  as  the  string  will  soon 
decay  and  will  not  interfere  with  the  growth  of  the  stock. 

24.  Whip  Grafting. — The  method  almost  universally 
used  for  root  grafting  and  occasionally  used  for  grafting  small 
limbs  is  known  as  the  whip  grafting.  This  method  of 
grafting  has  an  advantage  in  that  it  can  be  used  on  very 
young  stocks — those  only  1  or  2  years  old.     In  making  a  whip 


Fig.  13 


graft,  one  long,  smooth,  slanting  cut  is  made  at  the  top  of  the 
stock  with  a  sharp  knife.  The  knife  is  then  placed  on  the  cut 
surface  near  the  top  and  the  stock  is  split  in  the  direction  of 
its  longest  axis,  forming  a  tongue,  as  shown  in  Fig.  13  (a); 
the  same  form  of  cut  is  made  in  the  lower  end  of  the  scion, 
as  shown  in  (6).  The  two  parts  are  then  forced  together  as 
illustrated  in  (c).  The  tongues  aid  by  locking  the  stock  and 
scion  together.  Some  difference  in  diameter  of  the  stock  and 
scion  may  be  disregarded,  but  in  order  to  bring  the  growing  part 
of  the  root  and  the  scion  in  contact,  the  edge  of  the  scion  and 


1 


ESSENTIALS  OF  FRUIT  CULTURE 


27 


stock  must  be  even  on  one  side.  After  the  stock  and  scion 
have  been  united  they  should  be  wrapped  with  five  or  six 
turns  of  waxed  string  to  hold  the  parts  together,  as  shown  in  {d) . 
When  roots  are  whip  grafted,  it  is  not  necessary  to  use  wax, 
because  the  soil  will  keep  out  air;  but  when  tops  are  whip 
grafted  the  wound  must  be  thoroughly  waxed.  The  roots 
for  grafting  are  dug  and  the  scions  are  cut  in  the  fall  and  the 
work  of  grafting  is  done  during  the  winter.  As  the  grafts  are 
made  they  are  packed  in  moss,  sawdust,  or  sand  in  a  cellar 
at  a  temperature  of  about  40  degrees,  where  they  remain  until 
spring.  In  making  the  graft,  the  roots  are  sometimes  cut 
into  two  or  three  pieces  and  each  piece  grafted  to  a  scion; 
this  is  known  as  piece -root  grafting;  or  the  top  half  or 
two-thirds  of  the  root  only  may  be  grafted,  which  is  known 
as  a  wliole-root  grafting.  Ordinarily,  in  making 
the  whip  graft,  the  scion  is  cut  with  three  buds  and 
the  stock  to  nearly  the  same  length  as  the  scion, 
and  the  graft  is  planted  so  as  to  bring  the 
union  not  far  below  the  surface  of  the  ground. 
When  it  is  desirable  to  produce  very  hardy  trees 
and  the  scions  to  be  used  are  of  known  hardiness 
and  the  roots  are  of  unknown  hardiness,  the  scions 
are  cut  from  6  to  12  inches  long  and  the  roots  only 
from  2  to  4  inches  long  and  the  graft  is  planted 
deep  enough  to  cause  roots  to  spring  from  the  lower 
end  of  the  scion.  The  piece  of  root  simply  acts  as  |S: 
a  nurse  until  roots  have  started  from  the  scion. 
When  these  young  trees  are  removed  to  an  orchard 
the  original  root  is  often  cut  off;  this  is  not  done 
when  the  root  is  strong  and  the  union  good.  fig.  u 

25.  Splice  Grafting. — A  method  of  grafting  known  as 
splice  grafting  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  14.  This  is  the  same 
as  whip  grafting,  except  that  no  tongue  is  cut.  The  sloping 
surfaces  of  the  stock  and  scion  are  brought  together  and  the 
two  pieces  are  bound  with  waxed  string. 

26.  Veneer  Grafting. — A  method  of  grafting  known  as 
veneer  grafting,  which  may  be  used  for  root  or  stem  grafting, 


28 


ESSENTIALS  OF  FRUIT  CULTURE 


§1 


is  illustrated  in  Fig.  15.  The  top  of  the  stock  is  removed  with 
a  slanting  cut  and  a  notch  cut  in  it  as  shown  in  (a) ;  a  corre- 
sponding notch  is  cut  in  the  scion  as  shown  in  (b),  and  the  two 

parts  are  brought  together  and 
bound  with  raffia  or  waxed 
string  as  shown  in  (c).  The 
joint  of  a  stem  graft  must  be 
thoroughly  covered  with  wax; 
this  is  not  necessary  in  the  case 
of  a  root  graft. 


PROPAGATION    BY    BUDDING 

27.  A  method  of  propaga- 
tion much  used  for  stone  fruits 
and  to  some  extent  for  apples 
and  pears  is  known  as  budding. 
This  consists  of  inserting  a  single 
Fig.  15  detached,   bud   under   the   bark 

of  a  stock.  The  operation  of  budding  may  be  performed  at 
a  time  when  the  bark  can  be  loosened  easily,  and  when  mature 
buds  can  be  obtained.  These  conditions  are  found  to  exist  in 
the  early  spring  and  again  in  the  late  summer  or  early  fall. 
The  buds  for  use  in  the  spring  are  taken  from  the  previous 
season's  growth,  and  those  used  in  the  late  summer  or  early 
fall  are  taken  from  the  growth  of  the  season.  It  is  possible 
to  insert  buds  in  the  tops  of  young  trees  in  place  of  scions  in 
order  to  change  the  variety;  in  some  cases  buds  have  been 
inserted  in  limbs  2  or  3  years  old,  but  a  better  practice  is  to  cut 
back  the  tree  rather  severely  the  season  previous  to  budding, 
in  order  to  get  a  growth  of  suckers  in  which  to  set  the  buds. 
The  important  use  of  budding,  however,  is  on  1-year-old  stocks 
for  transplanting.  The  operation  of  budding  is  simple  and 
with  a  little  experience  may  be  performed  very  rapidly.  When 
a  nimiber  of  stocks  are  to  be  budded  the  operator  first  prepares 
a  bud  stick,  which  is  a  twig  of  the  species  desired  to  propagate 
containing  a  number  of  buds.  When  the  budding  is  done  in  the 
early  spring  the  bud  stick  will  be  of  the  previous  year's  growth ; 
if  the  budding  is  done  in  the  late  simimer  or  early  fall  the  bud 


§  1  ESSENTIALS  OF  FRUIT  CULTURE  29 

stick  will  be  a  twig  of  the  current  year's  growth.  When  the 
work  of  budding  is  done  during  the  period  of  active  growth, 
the  leaf  that  grows  just  below  each  bud  is  severed  just  as  soon 
as  the  bud  stick  is  cut,  leaving  the  petiole,  or  stem,  of  the  leaf 
attached  to  the  stick  to  serve  as  a  handle  to  aid  in  pushing  the 
bud  into  position.  All  of  the  buds  on  a  stick  are  usually  cut 
before  any  of  them  are  placed,  but  they  are  allowed  to  hang 
to  the  stick  by  one  end  until  they  are  needed,  when  the  final 
cut  that  severs  them  from  the  stick  is  made.  A  bud  is  first 
cut  by  inverting  the  twig  and  then  placing  the  edge  of  a  sharp, 
thin-bladed  knife  a  little  above  the  bud  and  the  thumb  of  the 
hand  in  which  the  knife  is  held  just  below  the  bud  and  giving 
a  quick,  sharp  turn  with  the  blade. 


Fig.  16 

In  Fig.  16  is  shown  the  manner  of  making  the  first  cut  in 
removing  a  bud  from  the  stick. 

Fig.  17  represents  a  bud  stick,  showing  in  outline  the  cuts 
that  should  be  made  for  removing  the  buds.  The  knife  will 
cut  into  the  wood  a  little  just  under  the  bud,  leaving  a  small 
part  of  the  wood  attached  to  the  under  side  of  the  bud.  Some 
budders  remove  this  wood,  although  this  is  not  necessary; 
however,  there  is  a  little  more  certainty  of  a  union  if  the  wood 
is  removed.  The  stock  for  budding  should  be  at  least  as  thick 
as  an  ordinary  lead  pencil.  The  peach  will  reach  this  size 
and  may  be  budded  the  first  season  after  the  seed  is  planted; 
apples  and  pears  will  not  be  of  sufficient  size  before  the  second 


30 


ESSENTIALS  OF  FRUIT  CULTURE 


§1 


season.  The  stock  is  first  prepared  by  removing  all  buds  and 
twigs  from  the  area  to  be  budded.  The  leaves  should 
not  be  removed  more  than  a  day  or  two  before  the 
budding  is  done  or  the  bark  may  set — that  is,  grow 
fast  to  the  wood — and  interfere  with  the  operation  of 
budding.  The  bud  is  usually  placed  on  the  stock  not 
over  2  or  3  inches  above  the  surface  of  the  ground  and 
in  most  cases  is  placed  on  the  north  side  of  the  stock 
so  that  the  bud  may  be  shaded  somewhat  from  the 
direct  rays  of  the  sun. 

For  the  reception  of  the  bud,  a  T-shaped  incision  is 
made  just  through  the  bark  as  shown  in  Fig.  18  (a). 
The  cross-cut  is  usually  made  first,  and  after  making 
the  last  cut  the  knife  blade  is  turned  to  the  right  and 
to  the  left  to  loosen  the  flaps  of  bark  as  shown  in  (6) . 
A  bud  is  then  placed  imder  the  flaps  and  pushed  firmly 
into  place  imtil  the  tmder  surface  is  entirely  in  contact 
with  the  body  of  the  stock.  A  bud  in  place  is  shown 
in  (c).  The  bud  must  now  be  tightly  bound  into  place, 
for  which  purpose  bands  of  raffia  from  8  to  10  inches 
long  are  most  convenient.  A  few  turns  should  be 
taken  below  and  above  the  bud  and  the  strands  may 
Pig.  17     be  held  by  drawing  them  under  one  of  the  wraps. 

A  stock  with  bud   inserted   and   wrapped   is   shown  in   (d). 


(a)  (b)  (c)  (d) 

Fig.  18 

To  prevent  girdHng,  the  band  should  be  cut  as  soon  as  the 


§1 


ESSENTIALS  OF  FRUIT  CULTURE 


31 


bud  has  united  to  the  stock,  usually  about  2  or  3  weeks 
the  setting  of  the  bud.  It  is  very  import- 
ant that  all  sprouts  that  spring  from  the 
stock  after  the  budding  should  be  removed 
so  that  the  plant  food  that  they  would 
consume  may  be  utilized  by  the  bud. 
When  growth  starts  in  the  bud,  the  entire 
top  of  the  tree  is  removed  just  above  the 
bud,  which  wiU  then  grow  rapidly,  being 
nourished  by  the  entire  root  system  of  the 
tree.  When  the  bud  is  set  late  in  the 
season  it  does  not  start  growth  that  fall, 
but  simply  grows  fast  to  the  stock ;  growth 
starts  the  next  spring,  at  which  time  the 
top  of  the  tree  is  removed.  Spring  bud- 
ding of  fruit  trees  is  seldom  practiced. 
In  Fig.  19  the  removed  top  a  and  grow- 
ing bud  h  are  shown. 


after 


Fig.  19 


PRUNING  OF  FRUIT  PLANTS 


PRINCIPLES  OF  PRUNING 


PURPOSES    OF    PRUNING 

28.  Some  of  the  purposes  of  pruning  fruit  plants  are  to 
thin  out  the  branches  in  order  to  allow  the  remaining  branches 
sufficient  room  and  light;  to  keep  the  plants  in  manageable 
shape;  to  regulate  the  size  of  the  plants  to  the  place  they 
occupy;  to  establish  a  proper  balance  between  wood  and  leaf 
growth  and  the  production  of  fruit ;  to  remove  injured  or  dis- 
eased parts;  and  to  facilitate  spraying  and  other  work  in  the 
orchard. 

Most  plants  tend  to  produce  a  surplus  of  branches.  In 
nature,  many  of  these  branches  are  gotten  rid  of  by  a  self- 
pruning  process;  that  is,  they  die  from  being  crowded  by  other 
branches    or    by    adjacent    trees.     The    fruit    grower   usually 


32  ESSENTIALS  OF  FRUIT  CULTURE  §  1 

prunes  out  the  branches  that  would  die  from  being  crowded 
and  any  other  branches  that  are  no  longer  advantageous  to 
the  tree.  The  thinning  of  branches  is  like  killing  weeds  in  a 
garden.  In  killing  weeds,  the  gardner  gets  rid  of  certain  plants 
in  order  to  give  more  room  to  those  that  remain.  In  pruning, 
the  fruit  grower  gets  rid  of  certain  branches  in  order  that  those 
that  remain  may  have  more  space,  more  sunlight,  or  better 
shape,  and  a  large  quantity  of  plant-food. 

On  many  fruit  plantations  branches  grow  so  densely  that  it 
is  inconvenient  to  get  to  the  parts  of  the  tree  or  plant  in  order 
to  pick  the  fruit  or  to  perform  some  work  in  caring  for  them. 
For  each  species  of  fruit  tree  or  plant  the  grower  usually  has 
a  pretty  definite  ideal  of  proper  distribution  of  parts  or  branches, 
and  he  prunes  out  the  branches  so  that  the  tree  or  plant  con- 
forms to  his  ideal. 

The  fruit  grower  frequently  prunes  plants  that  are  weak 
or  trailing  on  the  ground  in  order  that  they  will  grow  stockier 
and  straighter  and  will  stand  up  better  than  they  grow  or 
stand  normally.  Branches  that  would  trail  on  the  ground  if 
allowed  to  grow  their  fuU  length  are  shortened  so  that  the  fruit 
produced  on  them  will  be  better  supported  by  the  plant.  This 
practice  is  particularly  common  in  the  management  usually 
accorded  grapes,  raspberries,  and  blackberries.  Some  fruit 
trees  normally  grow  very  tall.  The  fruit  grower  may  cut  back 
the  top  on  the  main  stem  of  such  plants  in  order  to  secure  a 
lower  and  a  more  spreading  form  of  top,  which  will  enable  him 
to  take  care  of  the  tree  and  to  gather  the  fruit  more  readily 
than  if  the  top  were  high  and  upright. 

29.  Trees  or  other  plants  growing  at  regular  distances 
apart  may  be  kept  from  interfering  with  each  other  by  pruning 
back  certain  parts.  Many  species  of  fruit,  the  peach,  for 
example,  tend  to  bear  much  of  their  fruit  on  the  new  wood, 
or  periphery,  of  the  tree,  and,  if  allowed  to  grow  unpruned, 
the  tree  eventually  bears  fruit  only  toward  the  tips  of  tall  or 
wide-spreading  branches.  In  many  such  cases,  it  is  economy 
to  cut  back  the  branches  from  time  to  time,  thus  keeping  the 
fruit-bearing  area  nearer  the  main  support,  or  trunk,  of  the  tree. 


§  1  ESSENTIALS  OF  FRUIT  CULTURE  33 

Certain  varieties  of  fruits  in  certain  soils  or  climates  may 
tend  to  set  more  fruit  than  they  can  mature  properly,  that  is, 
they  may  tend  to  overbear.  In  certain  other  locations  these 
same  varieties  may  tend  to  produce  wood  and  leaf  growth  and 
to  set  very  little  fruit.  If  a  plant  or  tree  sets  a  larger  number 
of  fruit  buds  than  it  can  support  fruit,  it  will  be  economical  to 
thin  the  fruit  crop  by  pruning  out  some  of  the  fruit-bearing  twigs 
and  branches,  even  before  the  tree  blossoms.  This  removal 
of  a  part  of  the  fruiting  area  may  allow  the  tree  to  give  its 
entire  vigor  and  strength  in  support  of  the  fruit  that  remains. 
If  a  plant  produces  but  little  wood  and  leaf  growth,  pruning 
at  the  proper  time  of  year  may  do  much  toward  invigorating 
the  wood  and  leaf  growth  of  those  parts  that  remain. 

Just  as  dwarf  or  standard  plants  may  be  chosen  to  suit  the 
purpose  of  the  grower,  so  any  plant,  by  the  pruning  that  it 
receives,  may  be  dwarfed  or  made  to  grow  larger  than  an 
unpruned  plant.  The  tree  may  be  pruned  so  as  to  reduce  its 
stature,  thus  making  it  suit  better  a  given  position,  or  on  the 
other  hand,  it  may  be  pruned  solely  with  the  idea  of  invigorating 
the  wood  grovvTth  of  the  parts  that  remain,  thus  sometimes 
accelerating  its  growth  and  enabling  it  to  reach  a  larger  size 
than  it  would  ordinarily  attain. 

30.  Many  of  the  diseases  of  fruit  plants,  such  as  blight, 
canker,  black  knot,  etc.,  are  due  to  fungi  or  bacteria  that 
multiply  rapidly  and  spread  through  a  plantation,  and  these 
diseases  may  often  be  checked  by  the  removal  of  the  disease- 
infected  parts  by  modern  methods  of  pruning.  As  a  rule, 
diseased  or  injured  parts  of  trees  or  plants  should  be  removed 
and  no  chances  taken  on  the  spread  of  the  organism  that  causes 
the  disease. 

The  general  practice  of  spraying,  in  combating  insects  and 
fungous  diseases  of  plants  in  recent  years,  has  had  much  to  do 
with  stimulating  careful  pruning.  In  spraying,  it  is  essential 
that  all  parts  of  a  tree  be  covered  with  spray,  but  it  is  not 
feasible  to  get  a  spray  to  the  body  of  a  tree  or  to  all  of  its 
branches  unless  the  tree  is  well  pruned  and  its  branches  well 
thinned.     Trees    need    proper    pruning,    therefore,    not    only 


34  ESSENTIALS  OF  FRUIT  CULTURE  §  1 

after  they  have  reached  bearing  age  but  while  the  framework 
of  the  young  trees  is  immature,  so  they  may  be  formed  in  such 
a  way  that  they  can  be  most  readily  sprayed  when  fully  matured. 


EFFECTS    OF    PRUNING- 

31.  By  judicious  pruning  branches  or  plants  may  be  prop- 
erly thinned,  plants  kept  in  proper  shape  and  confined  to  the 
desired  space,  the  proportion  of  wood  and  leaf  growth  to  fruit 
production  regulated,  the  spread  of  disease  prevented,  and  the 
work  of  spraying  facilitated.  But  pruning  is  the  direct  cause 
of  other  effects,  some  of  which  are  desirable  and  some  of  which 
are  undesirable. 

Cutting  back  or  thinning  out  the  branches  of  a  tree,  especially 
during  the  winter,  induces  a  more  rapid  growth  of  wood  the 
following  year  on  the  remaining  branches  than  if  the  pruning 
had  not  taken  place.  And,  although  a  tree  that  has  received 
much  pruning  may  not,  at  maturity,  be  so  large  as  a  similar 
tree  that  has  not  been  pruned,  the  former  may,  and  in  all 
probability  will,  have  healthy,  vigorous  wood,  and  the  unpruned 
tree,  although  larger,  may  contain  many  dead,  dying,  diseased, 
and  undesirable  limbs  and  branches.  Thus,  one  of  the  impor- 
tant effects  of  pruning  is  the  securing  of  a  healthy,  vigorous 
growth  of  the  tree  or  plant. 

The  pruning  of  some  of  the  fruit-bearing  branches  and  the 
shortening  of  others  is  one  of  the  best  methods  of  preventing 
fruit  trees  from  setting  more  fruit  than  they  can  fully  mature, 
or,  in  other  words,  from  overbearing.  Thus,  judicious  pruning 
not  only  stimulates  the  wood  growth  of  the  subsequent  season 
but,  at  the  same  time,  leaves  enough  fruit  buds  on  a  tree  to 
furnish  such  a  crop  of  fruit  as  the  tree  can  most  economically 
produce;  whereas,  the  unpruned  tree  may  produce  more  fruit 
than  it  can  mature  and  may  make  a  very  meager  growth  of 
wood  that  is  often  weak  and  diseased. 

32.  Pruning  at  different  times  of  the  year  produces  a 
different  effect  on  the  production  of  wood  and  fruit.  There 
is  an  old  adage  that  runs,  "Prune  in  winter  for  wood  and  in 


§  1  ESSENTIALS  OF  FRUIT  CULTURE  35 

summer  for  fruit  production."  This  statement  is  based  on 
experience  that  has  demonstrated  the  fact  that  excessive  wood 
growth  is  usually  developed  at  the  expense  of  fruit  production, 
and  vice  versa.  In  this  connection,  the  fruit  grower  should 
keep  in  mind  the  distinction  between  the  growth  of  wood  and 
leaves,  known  as  vegetative  activity,  and  the  production  of 
blossom  and  fruit,  known  as  reproductive  activity.  A  fruit 
plant,  to  be  in  its  best  condition,  should  make  enough  vege- 
tative growth  to  be  healthy  and  yet  produce  such  a  quantity 
of  fruit  as  is  feasible  without  reducing  the  vitality  of  the  tree. 
In  such  cases  vegetative  activity  and  reproductive  activity 
are  said  to  be  in  balance.  Whenever,  through  injudicious 
pruning  or  any  other  phase  of  mismanagement,  a  plant  makes 
more  than  normal  vegetative  growth,  its  tendency  is  to  pro- 
duce a  small  quantity  of  fruit.  This  is  fru-ther  emphasized 
by  the  fact  that  fruit  trees  that  make  abnormally  rapid  growth 
often  fail  to  come  into  bearing  at  the  expected  time;  they 
delay  bearing  until  their  excessive  wood  growth  begins  to 
wane.  Also,  pruning  that  results  in  an  excessive  growth  of 
water  sprouts,  which  are  purely  vegetative  growths,  results  in 
no  formation  of  fruit  buds  on  these  water  spouts  until  their 
vegetative  growth  wanes.  These  facts  should  be  contrasted 
with  the  well-known  fact  that  an  injury  to  a  tree  that  checks 
its  wood  growth  often  results  in  an  abnormally  early  fruitful- 
ness  or  in  a  too  abundant  setting  of  fruit ;  a  young  tree  affected 
by  borers  or  accidently  injured  by  a  cultivator  or  girdled  by 
rodents  may,  by  such  an  injury,  be  forced  into  excessive  fruit- 
fulness,  although  the  vegetative  growth  of  the  tree  is  much 
weakened  by  the  injury.  It  is,  therefore,  a  generally  con- 
ceded fact  that  the  checking  of  wood  and  leaf  growth  often 
increases  the  production  of  fruit,  and  on  the  other  hand, 
excessive  fruit  production,  or  overbearing,  tends  greatly  to 
reduce  the  vegetative  growth  of  the  tree. 

33.  Pruning  during  the  winter  usually  results  in  strong 
wood  growth  the  following  summer,  and  if  excessive  pruning 
is  done  during  the  winter  it  may  prevent  young  trees  from 
coming  into  bearing  as  early  as  they  would  without  such 


36  ESSENTIALS  OF  FRUIT  CULTURE  §  1 

pruning  and  may  reduce  the  fruitfulness  of  old  trees.  The 
probable  reason  is  that  a  tree  stores  up  a  reserve  supply  of 
food  and  energy  during  the  summer  and  that  the  early  growth 
during  the  spring  no  doubt  depends  more  on  this  stored  food 
and  energy  than  on  immediate  root  action  to  supply  plant- 
food.  In  fact,  in  cold  soils,  a  tree  often  comes  into  leaf  and 
bloom  before  its  roots  are  warm  enough  to  become  really  active 
in  supplying  food  for  the  tree.  If  parts  of  the  plant  are  removed 
in  winter,  then  the  stored  food  and  energy  of  the  tree  is  diverted 
into  the  fewer  parts  that  remain.  These  remaining  parts  get 
the  entire  food  supply  that  otherwise  would  have  been  dis- 
tributed among  the  larger  number  of  buds  and  branches,  and 
the  result  is  a  stiraulation  of  the  wood  growth  on  a  tree  pruned 
during  the  winter. 

Pruning  in  summer,  especially  if  the  pruning  is  excessive, 
is  likely  to  result  in  diminished  wood  growth.  The  probable 
reason  is  that  after  the  early  growth  of  spring  has  used  up  the 
available  stored  food  and  energy  accumulated  in  the  tree, 
subsequent  growth  depends  on  the  food  that  is  supplied  by 
the  roots  from  day  to  day.  However,  it  should  be  borne  in 
mind  that  the  sap  taken  from  the  soil  through  the  roots  of  the 
tree  is  not  immediately  in  a  condition  to  promote  growth  or 
the  building  of  tissue.  The  sap  is  first  carried  from  the  roots 
into  the  leaves  where,  in  the  presence  of  the  green  coloring 
matter,  it  is  elaborated,  or  digested,  and  is  then  transported 
to  all  the  growing  parts  of  the  tree  where  it  promotes  growth. 
Regardless  of  how  much  sap  the  roots  are  taking  from  the 
soil,  no  more  plant-food  can  be  utilized  for  growth  than  is 
elaborated  in  the  leaves.  As  pruning  in  summer  removes 
leaves,  or  a  part  of  this  elaborating  surface  of  the  tree,  the 
quantity  of  plant -food  that  is  elaborated  is  reduced.  As  a 
result,  vegetative  activity  is  in  a  measure  checked,  and,  if  not 
carried  too  far,  may  result  in  a  tendency  to  reproductive 
activity  and  throw  the  trees  into  bearing. 

34.  So  long  as  all  available  plant-food  is  being  directed 
toward  the  tips  of  rapidly  growing  twigs,  it  cannot  be  used  for 
fruit-bud  formation.     Fruit  buds  of  practically  all  fruit-pro- 


§  1  ESSENTIALS  OF  FRUIT  CULTURE  37 

ducing  plants  are  usually  formed  the  season  before  the  blossoms 
and  fruit  are  produced.  In  spring,  so  far  as  is  known,  all  the 
buds  on  the  new  growth  start  ahke,  as  wood  buds.  If  excessive 
vegetative  activity  continues  throughout  the  season  to  carry 
all  available  food  to  make  growing  points  and  leaves,  these 
buds  will  remain  as  wood  buds.  However,  if  part  of  the  plant 
food  that  is  being  elaborated  in  the  tree  can  be  directed  in 
early  summer,  perhaps  in  June,  to  storage  in  some  of  these 
buds,  they  may  be  transformed  into  fruit  buds.  The  setting 
of  fruit  buds  is,  therefore,  apparently  due  to  the  storage  of  an 
abundance  of  available  plant-food,  so  that  buds  which  started 
as  wood  buds  can  receive  a  sufficient  share  to  develop  into 
flower  or  fruit  buds.  These  fruit  buds  continue  to  develop 
more  and  more  throughout  summer  and  autumn.  If  the 
storage  of  plant -food  in  and  adjacent  to  the  fruit  buds  is 
abundant,  they  shotild  be  thoroughly  developed  by  autumn, 
pass  the  winter  safely,  produce  flowers  in  spring,  and  the 
flowers  should  be  followed  by  a  fruit  crop.  But  anything  that 
tends  to  divert  available  plant-food  during  the  summer  away 
from  the  fruit  buds  oppose  fruitf illness  for  the  coming  year. 
The  fruit-bearing  parts  of  certain  kinds  of  plants,  especially 
the  grape,  blackberry,  and  raspberry  plants,  are  so  weakened 
by  bearing  a  crop  of  fruit  that  they  are  not. desirable  for  sub- 
sequent fruit  production.  In  such  cases,  regular  pruning  is 
particularly  necessary  to  remove  those  parts  that  have  once 
borne  fruit  and  to  shape  new  parts  for  the  production  of  the 
next  fruit  crop. 

METHOD  OF  PRUNING 

35.  In  various  parts  of  the  world  numerous  forms  and 
heights  of  heads  of  trees  have  been  advocated  and  maintained 
by  fruit  growers.  In  the  United  States,  one  of  the  most 
important  classifications  as  to  shape  of  tree  is  based  on  the 
height  of  the  head.  In  Europe,  fruit  trees  are  often  trained 
to  grow  open  heads  of  wine-glass,  or  vase,  form  in  order  to 
expose  all  parts  of  the  head  to  sunlight.  Also,  they  are  often 
trimmed  and  trained  so  that  the  branches  spread  out  fiat 
against  a  trellis  or  the  south  side  of  a  wall.     An  apple  tree 


38 


ESSENTIALS  OF  FRUIT  CULTURE 


§1 


pruned  and  trained  to  grow  on  the  side  of  a  wall  is  illustrated 
in  Fig.  20,  and  another  one  pruned  to  two  horizontal  branches 


Fig.  20 


that  are  trained  to  grow  on  a  horizontal  support  only  2  feet 
above  the  ground  is  shown  in  Fig.  21. 

In  regions  with  very  severe  climate,  fruit  plants  are  some- 
times laid  down  and  protected  during  the  winter.     In  such 


^"■■^aiffl^^ 


<^^  «fsar^ 


,cW«f>-_..=_  ^---       ^^^^^fm^^_  Z''''-  ^P^ 


'-•-^f^T^r-  "■  KHUiiWO" W'"l;••■• 


Fig.  21 


cases  a  special  form  of  pruning  is  given  to  the  plants  to  adapt 
them  to  the  winter  protection.     Thus,  the  trees  may  be  grown 


§  1  ESSENTIALS  OF  FRUIT  CULTURE  39 

in  a  more  or  less  flattened  form ;  the  branches  on  the  north  and 
south  sides  are  pruned  very  short  and  those  on  the  east  -and 
west  sides  are  allowed  to  grow  long.  The  root  system  is  also 
cut  back  more  or  less  on  the  two  flattened  sides  of  the  tree  so 
that  the  main  brace  roots  extend  laterally  in  the  same  directions 
as  the  spread  of  branches.  This  form  of  pruning  admits  of 
laying  down  tender  trees  for  winter  protection  without  breaking 
either  the  essential  roots  or  the  essential  branches. 

36.     High-Headed    and    Low-Headed    Trees. — In    the 

early  settled  regions  of  the  United  States  where  orchards  were 
first  planted  it  was  usually  customary  to  grow  very  high  heads 
on  fruit  trees.  Often  the  heads  were  started  7  or  8  feet  above 
the  ground,  so  that  persons  could  walk  upright  below  the 
branches  and  teams  could  be  driven  under  them  to  till  the 
soil.  But,  at  the  present  time  in  many  parts  of  the  United 
States  and  Canada,  heads  so  low  as  to  stand  very  close  to  the 
ground  frequently  prevail.  The  reason  for  the  difference  in 
the  position  of  the  heads  of  fruit  trees  in  regard  to  the  height 
of  the  head  is  that  the  character  of  the  head  of  a  fruit  tree 
bears  an  intimate  relation  to  its  adaptation  to  a  given  climate 
and  to  the  management  that  may  be  given  to  an  orchard.  In 
Europe,  where  most  of  the  fruit -producing  plants  grown  in  the 
United  States  were  formerly  obtained,  a'  comparatively  foggy 
climate  prevails.  Practically  all  of  Europe  and  the  adjacent 
islands  ,has  a  much  more  humid  climate  than  has  the  United 
States.  Europe  has  a  less  changeable  climate,  especially  with 
respect  to  devastating  winds  than  most  parts  of  the  United 
States. 

In  a  section  where  sunlight  is  inadequate  to  the  best  develop- 
ment of  fruit  trees,  a  high,  open  head  will  best  admit  sunlight 
to  all  parts  of  the  trees  and  allow  the  ground  to  become  warm 
and  dry  under  the  trees.  But  in  most  sections  of  the  United 
States,  where  the  sunlight  is  intense,  and  especially  in  those 
sections  where  drying  winds  prevail,  low  heads  are  grown. 
Choosing  the  height  and  character  of  the  head  is,  therefore, 
one  important  way  of  adapting  fruit  trees  to  the  climate  of  the 
locality  in  which  they   are   planted.     Where  the  maximum 


40  ESSENTIALS  OF  FRUIT  CULTURE  §  1 

sunlight  is  needed  by  the  trees  and  to  warm  and  dry  the  earth 
beneath  the  tree,  high  heads  are  probably  best;  where  it  is 
desirable  to  shade  the  ground,  protect  the  trunk  and  main 
branches  of  the  trees  from  sun  scald  and  to  resist  the  force  of 
strong  winds,  low,  compact  heads  are  desirable.  In  practically 
all  parts  of  the  United  States  in  recently  planted  orchards 
low  heads  have  been  almost  universally  adopted.  Typical 
high-headed  trees  are  found  only  in  old  orchards.  A  tree 
headed  low  can  be  brought  into  bearing  earlier  than  one  headed 
high,  because  very  high  heads  are  secured  only  by  cutting  off 
annually  the  side  branches  that  fonn  diiring  the  first  2  to 
4  years  of  the  growth  of  the  trees,  and  this  pruning  delays  the 
times  when  branches  shall  be  old  enough  to  produce  fruiting 
parts. 

Low-headed  trees  are  stocky.  There  is  usually  a  correlation 
between  root  growth  below  ground  and  branching  above 
ground.  An  unsuually  large  limb  above  ground  is  ordinarily 
balanced  with  a  similarly  large  root  below.  The  same  strands 
of  woody  fibers  that  foim  the  roots  extend  upwards  to  help 
form  the  branches,  and,  as  the  roots  spread  from  the  base  of 
a  tree,  an  enlargement  of  the  trunk  is  produced.  Frequently 
large  roots  form  flanges  that  broaden  rapidly  as  they  enter 
the  ground;  a  similar  broadening  effect  occurs  where  the 
branching  system  begins  at  the  top  of  the  trunk;  and  the 
nearer  together  these  two  points  are,  the  larger  will  be  the 
diameter  of  the  trunk  of  the  tree  at  a  given  age. 

Measurements  of  the  diameter  of  the  trunks  of  low-headed 
and  high-headed  trees  show  that  the  lower  the  head  the  thicker 
will  be  the  trunk.  In  one  8-year-old  orchard  where  a  compari- 
son of  the  two  methods  of  heading  was  made,  the  low-headed 
trees  with  trunks  only  18  inches  high  were  50  per  cent,  greater 
in  diameter  at  their  smallest  point  than  were  the  trunks  of 
high-headed  trees  of  the  same  variety. 

In  sunny  climates  low-headed  trees  tend  better  to  shade 
the  trunks  and  main  branches  and  thereby  to  avoid  sun  scald 
than  do  high-headed  trees.  Winds  do  not  damage  low-headed 
trees  so  much  as  high-headed  trees  nor  blow  the  fruit  from 
them  so  readily.     The  fruit  on  low-headed  trees  can  to  a  large 


§  1  ESSENTIALS  OF  FRUIT  CULTURE  41 

extent  be  picked  from  the  ground,  and  the  pruning  and  spraying 
may  be  more  conveniently  done  than  if  the  trees  were  high 
headed. 

High  heads  may,  in  moist,  foggy  chmates,  allow  the  sun 
more  quickly  to  warm  and  dry  the  soil  and  decomposing 
material  beneath  the  trees.  The  moist,  decomposing  material 
and  the  moist  condition  of  the  soil  favor  the  development  of 
such  fungi  as  may  cause  disease.  Certain  orchard  tools  can  be 
used  more  conveniently  in  high-headed  orchards  than  where 
the  branches  come  down  close  to  the  ground.  Also,  high  heads 
admit  of  a  better  growth  of  any  crop  that  may  be  grown  in 
the  orchard. 

It  seems  safe  to  say,  however,  that  the  advantages  of  low 
heads  so  largely  outweigh  the  advantages  of  exceedingly  high 
heads  that  it  is  probably  wise  to  adopt  as  low  heads  for  fruit 
trees  as  are  compatible  with  the  character  of  soil  and  the  pre- 
vailing climatic  conditions. 

37.  Styles  of  Pruning. — The  style  of  pruning  that 
eventually  allows  a  fruit  tree  or  plant  to  develop  to  its  largest 
possible  size  is  known  as  extensive  pruning.  It  consists 
of  a  thinning-out  process  rather  than  a  cutting-back  process 
and  is  particularly  adapted  to  such  trees  as  the  apple  and  the 
pear,  that  bear  fruit  on  short  fruit  spurs  all  over  the  tree, 
rather  than  to  such  trees  as  the  peach,  that  bear  fruit  on  the 
new,  growing  parts. 

The  style  of  pruning  that  tends  to  dwarf  plants  or  trees  is 
known  as  repressive  pruning.  It  is  accomplished  by  cutting 
back  new  growth  and  may  or  may  not  be  accompanied  by 
thinning  out  the  branches.  Repressive  pruning  is  commonly 
practiced  on  plants  that  bear, fruit  toward  the  extremities  of 
new  growth,  such  as  the  peach,  raspberry,  blackberry,  and 
grape.  If  this  style  of  pruning  is  not  practiced  on  such  trees 
as  the  peach,  the  limbs  are  very  likely  to  become  long  and  to 
break  under  a  heavy  load  of  fruit  and  the  trees  will  occupy 
more  space  in  an  orchard  than  is  necessary  or  desirable  for  them 
to  occupy.  Repressive  pruning  results  in  a  stocky,  strong  tree 
or  plant,  prevents  limbs  from  breaking  down  with  fruit,  keeps 


42 


ESSENTIALS  OF  FRUIT  CULTURE 


§1 


the  trees  within  desired  limits,  causes  the  fruit  to  be  produced 
where  it  can  be  picked  easily,  and  produces  plants  and  trees 
that  are  easily  sprayed. 


TOOLS  AND  MATERIALS  FOR  PRUNING 


TOOLS    FOR    PRUNING 

38.     The  tools  to  be  used  in  pruning  operations  depend 
somewhat  on  the  character  of  the  plant  to  be  pruned.     For  small 


Fig.  22 

plants  such  as  grape  and  berry  plant,  whose  parts  are  flexible, 
shears  are  most  largely  employed.  For  young  orchard  trees 
whose  branches  are  small,  the  pruning  knife  is  preferred  by 

most  fruit  growers.  For  old  orchard 
trees  where  large  limbs  or  diseased 
parts  are  to  be  removed,  the  pruning 
saws  are  indispensable.  Ladders  may 
also  be  necessary  in  the  case  of  trees 
that  have  reached  large  size. 

39.     Pruning    Shears. — The 

shears  most  commonly  used  in  pru- 
ning operations  are  hand  shears  of  the 
type  shown  in  Fig.  22.  The  shears 
illustrated  have  a  ratchet  nut  on  the 
side,  ^  device  that  prevents  the  cut- 
ting part  from  binding  or  from  becom- 
ing loose.  In  different  shears  there 
are  often  slight  differences  in  the  kind 
of  spring  between  the  handles  and  the 
attachment  for  fastening  the  handles  together  while  the  imple- 
ments are  not  being  used.  For  the  pruning  of  mature  trees, 
such  implements  as  are  shown  in  Fig.  23  are  often  found  to  be 


Fig.  23 


(b)  (e) 

Fig.  24 


43 


44  ESSENTIALS  OF  FRUIT  CULTURE  §  1 

very  convenient.  They  are  equipped  with  wood  handles 
about  2  feet  long  and  are  especially  useful  in  young  orchards 
where  many  limbs  and  branches  are  to  be  removed  that  are 
too  large  to  be  cut  off  with  ease  by  means  of  the  hand  shears 
shown  in  Fig.  22.  The  shears  shown  in  Fig.  24  (a),  (6),  and  (c) 
are  known  as  long-handled,  or  extension,  shears  and  are  almost 
indispensable  in  pruning  mature  orchards.  These  shears  can 
be  equipped  with  handles  4,  6,  8,  or  10  feet  long.  The  cutting 
part  is  operated  by  means  of  a  wire  extending  from  one  end 
of  the  cutting  part  to  a  hand  lever  that  is  fastened  to  the  long 
handle  near  its  free  end.  A  plain,  single  pair  long-handled 
shears  is  shown  in  (a),  and  combination  shears  and  saw,  in 
(b)  and  (c).  Either  of  these  latter  implements  are  of  especial 
value  in  removing  branches  that  are  too  large  to  be  cut  off 
by  the  shears.  The  implement  shown  in  (b)  is  of  such  a  size 
as  to  clip  off  limbs  f  inch  in  diameter  and  the  saw  is  the  ordi- 
nary type  of  hand  saw.  The  shears  of  the  implement  shown 
in  (c)  will  only  clip  off  branches  ^  inch  or  less  in  diameter,  and 
the  saw  is  of  a  special  curve  shape,  the  teeth  of  which  are  so 
made  that  they  cut  most  while  the  saw  is  being  pulled  rather 
than  pushed. 

40.  Pruning  Saws. — ^Among  the  implements  of  the  fruit 
grower  should  be  found  one  or  more  desirable  pruning  saws, 
several  types  of  which  are  shown  in  Fig.  25.  That  type  of 
saw  with  a  thin,  slender  blade  held  rigidly  in  a  steel  frame 
that  bows  backwards  several  inches  from  the  blade  is  a  very 
popular  saw,  although  many  orchardists  prefer  the  common 
type  of  saw. 

The  implement  shown  in  (a)  is  attached  to  a  long  handle 
and  fastened  to  one  end  of  the  saw  frame  is  a  chisel.  The 
chisel  attachment  is  very  convenient  for  punching  off  small 
branches  such  as  water  spouts  close  to  the  large  limbs.  Care, 
however,  must  be  exercised  in  the  use  of  the  chisel  or  the 
limb  from  which  the  small  branches  are  cut  will  be  wounded. 
The  saw  illustrated  in  (b)  is  of  a  special  tapering  shape,  and 
the  blade,  which  is  very  narrow,  is  fastened  by  means  of  a 
swivel  at  each  end  to  the  frame,  so  that  the  plane  of  the  saw 


Fig.  25 


46  ESSENTIALS  OF  FRUIT  CULTURE  §  1 

blade  may  extend  in  one  direction  and  that  of  the  frame  in 
another  direction.  This  arrangement,  it  is  claimed  by  some 
orchardists,  makes  this  saw  especially  desirable  to  use  in  narrow 
places  such  as  in  the  forks  of  limbs.  The  saw  is  equipped 
with  a  socket  handle  into  which  may  be  fitted  a  long  handle 
or  without  the  handle  it  may  be  used  as  a  hand  saw. 

The  saw  shoAvn  in  (c)  is  similar  to  the  one  shown  in  (b), 
in  that  the  former  has  a  slightly  tapering  frame  and  a  narrow 
blade  with  a  swivel  at  either  end.  The  saw  is  equipped, 
however,  with  a  regular  type  of  saw  handle  that  makes  it  more 
serviceable  for  close  work  than  the  saw  shown  in  (b).  The 
saw  shown  in  (d)  may  be  used  as  a  hand  saw  or  a  pole  may  be 
fitted  into  the  socket  handle.  An  arrangement  is  provided  so 
that  the  handle  may  be  adjusted  for  sawing  at  different  angles. 
The  saw  shown  in  (e)  is  equipped  with  a  handle  that  may  be 
hooked  over  a  small  limb  or  over  a  round  of  a  ladder.  The 
saw  shown  in  (/)  has  teeth  on  both  edges  and  by  many  orchard- 
ists is  claimed  to  be  a  very  convenient  saw,  but  care  must  be 
exercised  that  one  edge  of  the  saw  does  not  scratch  one  hmb 
while  another  one  is  being  sawed  off.  A  curved  saw  preferred 
by  many  pruners  is  shown  in  (g) .  The  teeth  are  made  so  that 
they  cut  while  the  "saw  is  being  pulled  backwards  rather  than 
while  it  is  being  pushed  forwards. 

41.  Pruning  Baiives. — Any  good  strong  pocket  knife 
may  be  used  as  a  pruning  knife,  but  knives  made  especially 
for  pruning  purposes,  such  as  the  one  illustrated  in  Fig.  26, 
usually  have  a  hook  blade  and  a  handle  sufficiently  large  and 
of  such  a  shape  as  to  allow  the  pruner  to  get  a  firm  grip. 


t-^  Fig.  26 

42.  Ladders  for  Pruning. — Ordinarily,  the  ladders  that 
are  used  in  the  picking  of  any  kind  of  fruit  are  the  best  suited 
for  use  in  pruning  the  trees  bearing  the  fruit.  Step  ladders  are 
very  commonly  used. 


§  1  ESSENTIALS  OF  FRUIT  CULTURE  47. 


DRESSINGS    FOR    WOUNDS 

43.  All  wounds,  whether  they  are  the  result  of  pruning  or 
of  accident,  should  be  protected  from  the  entrance  of  the 
germs  of  disease  or  of  decay.  Many  infectious  diseases,  such 
as  various  cankers  and  blights  as  well  as  certain  species  of 
insects,  may  frequently  find  entrance  to  trees  through  wounds. 
To  protect  the  tree  from  infection  by  disease  or  from  rotting 
of  the  wood,  all  cuts  larger  than  ^  inch  in  diameter  should  be 
promptly  covered  by  paint  or  other  dressing.  Of  the  numerous 
preparations  that  have  been  tried  or  recommended  for  the 
dressing  of  wounds,  probably  common  white  lead  and  oil 
paint  is  the  most  desirable.  It  can  always  be  secured  at  any 
paint  shop,  is  convenient  to  apply,  and  protects  the  wounds 
or  the  bare  wood  of  the  tree  as  well  as  most  other  dressings. 
Ordinarily,  wounds  should  be  painted  as  soon  as  they  occur; 
at  any  event,  the  paint  should  be  applied  within  24  hours  or 
as  soon  as  the  surface  of  the  wound  is  dry.  If  it  is  desirable, 
for  the  sake  of  appearances,  the  paint  may  be  colored  the  same 
general  color  as  that  of  the  bark  of  the  trees. 

Grafting  wax  is  also  a  most  excellent  dressing  for  wounds. 
Where  wounds  are  made  for  the  insertion  of  scions,  grafting 
wax  is  imdoubtedly  the  best  covering  for  the  naked  parts  of 
the  wood.  It  prevents  the  evaporation  of  moisture  through 
wounds  better  even  than  paint;  and,  although  it  is  more 
expensive  and  more  troublesome  to  apply,  there  may  be 
instances  where  it  is  desirable  to  use  grafting  wax  to  prevent 
evaporation  or  to  secure  greater  protection  to  wounds  than  is 
given  by  paint. 


ESSENTIALS  OF  FRUIT  CULTURE 

(PART  2) 


SPRAYS  AND  THEIR  PREPARATION 


INSECTICIDES 

1.  An  insecticide  is  defined  by  the  law  passed  by  the 
United  States  Congress  in  1910  as  "any  substance  or  mixture 
of  substances  intended  to  be  used  for  preventing,  destroying, 
repelling,  or  mitigating  any  insects  which  may  infest  vegeta- 
tion, man,  or  other  animals,  or  households,  or  be  present  in 
any  environment  whatsoever."  In  the  ordinary  usage  of  the 
term,  however,  any  substance  that  kills  insects  is  an  insecti- 
cide. All  insecticides  may  be  divided  into  two  general  classes, 
poisono^is  insecticides  and  contact  insecticides. 


POISONOUS    INSECTICIDES 

2.  Insecticides  containing  a  poison  that  will  kill  insects 
are  known  as  poisonous  insecticides.  They  are  used  for 
insects  that  have  mouth  parts  for  biting  and  that  feed  on  the 
surfaces  of  plants.  The  poisonous  insecticides  generally  used 
are  arsenate  of  lead,  Paris  green,  arsenite  of  lime,  and  London 
purple,  all  of  which  contain  arsenic  in  some  form.  Hellebore 
is  a  poisonous  insecticide  not  containing  arsenic  that  is  occa- 
sionally used. 

3.  Arsenate  of  lead  is  at  the  present  time  the  most 
valuable  poisonous  insecticide  for  spraying  purposes.     A  great 

COPYRIGHTED    BY    INTERNATIONAL    TEXTBOOK    COMPANY.       ALL    RIGHTS    RESERVED 

§2 

2i8— 5 


2  ESSENTIALS  OF  FRUIT  CULTURE  §  2 

advantage  this  poison  has  over  other  arsenical  poisons  is 
that  it  contains  very  little  soluble  arsenic — ^that  is,  arsenic 
soluble  in  water.  Soluble  arsenic  is  injurious  to  fruit  and 
foliage  and  for  this  reason  must  be  guarded  against  as  spray 
material.  The  advent  of  arsenate  of  lead  as  a  spray  has  made 
spraying  for  insect  enemies  of  the  peach  possible,  as  no  other 
arsenical  poison  can  be  used  on  peach  trees  because  of  burn- 
ing the  foliage.  Arsenate  of  lead  is  more  effective  than  other 
arsenic  insecticides,  because  it  can  be  used  in  large  quantities. 
Another  advantage  is  that  it  stays  in  suspension  well,  and 
thus  a  uniform  mixture  can  be  sprayed.  In  addition,  it 
adheres  to  the  foliage  well,  not  being  easily  washed  off  by  rain. 
Also,  it  has  some  value  as  a  fungicide — a  property  that  increases 
its  value  to  the  orchardist. 

Arsenate  of  lead  is  generally  sold  in  the  form  of  a  paste 
containing  about  50  per  cent,  of  water.  In  this  form  it  is 
used  at  the  rate  of  2,  3,  or  4  pounds  to  50  gallons  of  water, 
the  exact  quantity  depending  on  the  species  of  tree  to  be 
sprayed  and  the  pest  to  be  controlled.  Some  companies  man- 
ufactiire,  also,  a  dry  form  of  arsenate  of  lead,  of  which  only 
one-half  as  much  should  be  used  as  of  the  paste  form.  Arsenate 
of  lead  can  be  made  at  home  possibly  for  a  little  less  than  it 
would  cost  if  purchased,  but  it  is  not  possible  to  be  so  certain , 
of  the  strength  of  the  home-made  preparation,  and  unless  a 
very  large  quantity  is  needed  it  will  generally  be  found  more 
satisfactory  to  purchase  the  material.  Arsenate  of  lead  is  made 
by  combining  arsenate  of  soda  with  acetate  of  lead.  When 
the  insecticide  is  to  be  made  in  any  considerable  quantity 
it  is  well  first  to  make  up  stock  solutions  of  the  two  substances. 
For  the  stock  solution  of  arsenate  of  soda,  31  pounds  4  ounces 
of  arsenate  of  soda  should  be  dissolved  in  50  gallons  of  water. 
The  solution  can  be  made  most  satisfactorily  by  suspending 
the  arsenate  of  soda  in  a  burlap  bag  or  some  other  porous 
container  just  below  the  surface  of  the  water  near  the  top  of 
the  containing  barrel.  In  another  barrel,  78  pounds  2  ounces 
of  acetate  of  lead  shoiild  be  dissolved  in  50  gallons  of  water 
by  suspending  it  in  the  same  way.  After  a  thorough  stirring 
of  both  solutions,  1  gallon  of  each  with  sufficient  water  added 


§  2  ESSENTIALS  OF  FRUIT  CULTURE  3 

to  make  50  gallons  will  form  a  spray  solution  of  the  same 
strength  as  2  pounds  of  arsenate-of-lead  paste  in  50  gallons 
of  water.  The  arsenate-of-soda  and  acetate-of-lead  solutions 
should  be  poured  simultaneously  into  a  spray  barrel  contain- 
ing the  required  quantity  of  water. 

In  making  the  spray  mixture  with  the  manufactured  prepara- 
tion, either  the  paste  or  the  powder,  the  required  quantity  of 
poison  should  be  weighed  out  and  water  added  a  little  at  a 
time,  the  mixture  being  stirred  until  a  thin,  milky  liquid  is 
formed.  This  liquid  is  then  poured  into  sufficient  water  to 
form  a  spray  mixture  of  the  required  strength.  If  the  mixttire 
is  not  prepared  in  this  way  it  will  not  become  uniform  for 
several  hours.  A  large  quantity  of  the  milky  liquid  may  be 
conveniently  prepared  by  using  an  old  stone  chum  or  a  keg 
with  a  dasher  for  doing  the  mixing. 

A  purchaser  of  arsenate  of  lead  in  the  United  States  may 
be  reasonably  sure  of  getting  an  honest  brand,  as  the  specifi- 
cations of  the  United  States  insecticide  law  already  referred 
to  are  exacting.  Sec.  7  of  the  law  specifies  that  arsenate  of 
lead  shall  be  deemed  adulterated: 

"First,  if  it  contains  more  than  50  per  centtim  of  water; 
second,  if  it  contains  total  arsenic  equivalent  to  less  than 
12|  per  centum  of  arsenic  oxide,  AS2O5;  third,  if  it  contains 
arsenic  in  water-soluble  forms  equivalent  to  more  than  -^^  per 
centum  of  arsenic  oxide,  ^.^205;  fourth,  if  any  substances  have 
been  mixed  and  packed  with  it  so  as  to  reduce,  lower,-  or 
injuriously  affect  its  quality  or  strength.  Provided,  however, 
that  extra  water  may  be  added  to  lead  arsenate  if  the  result- 
ing mixture  is  labeled  lead  arsenate  and  water,  the  percent- 
age of  extra  water  being  plainly  and  correctly  stated  on  the 
label." 

4.  Paris  green  is  probably  the  best  known  insecticide 
on  the  market.  It  was  the  material  most  largely  used  as  a 
poisonous  spray  before  arsenate  of  lead  came  into  general  use. 
Paris  green  can  be  easily  recognized  by  its  beautiful  green  color. 
It  contains  much  more  soluble  arsenic  than  does  arsenate  of 
lead,  and  is,  therefore,  much  more  injurious  to  foliage  and 


4  ESSENTIALS  OF  FRUIT  CULTURE  §  2 

should  not  be  used  on  tender-leaved  plants  such  as  peaches, 
cherries,  or  plums.  For  a  spray  compound  1  pound  of  Paris 
green  is  generally  added  to  from  75  to  150  gallons  of  water. 
When  used  in  pure  water,  2  or  3  pounds  of  freshly  slaked  lime 
should  always  be  added  to  50  gallons  of  the  spray,  as  this  will 
combine  with  any  free  arsenic  that  may  be  present  and  so 
lessen  the  liability  of  injuring  fruit  and  foliage.  Paris  green 
does  not  stay  in  suspension  well,  and  for  that  reason  when  it 
is  used  as  a  spray  thorough  agitation  is  necessary.  Although 
cheaper  than  arsenate  of  lead,  it  is  doubtful  whether,  under 
present  conditions,  the  use  of  Paris  green  for  spraying  fruit 
plants  is  advisable.  If  it  is  used  it  should  first  be  mixed  with 
a  little  water  to  form  a  thin  paste  and  then  be  poured  into 
the  spray  tank  or  barrel;  if  it  is  poured  into  the  spray  barrel 
in  a  dry  form,  it  wiU  remain  on  top  of  the  water  without 
mixing. 

Sec.  7  of  the  United  States  insecticide  law  specifies  that 
Paris  green  shall  be  deemed  adulterated:  "First,  if  it  does 
not  contain  at  least  50  per  centum  of  arsenious  oxide,  second, 
if  it  contains  arsenic  in  water-soluble  forms  equivalent  to  more 
than  3|  per  centum  of  arsenious  oxide;  third,  if  any  substance 
has  been  mixed  and  packed  with  it  so  as  to  reduce  or  lower  or 
injuriously  affect  its  quality  or  strength." 

5.  Arsenlte  of  lime,  an  insecticide  that  may  be  easily, 
made  at  home,  consists  of  a  combination  of  arsenic  and  lime. 
This  poison  has  the  advantage  over  arsenate  of  lead  and 
Paris  green  of  being  much  less  expensive.  Also,  it  is  lighter 
than  Paris  green,  and  for  this  reason  remains  in  suspension 
much  better.  The  great  disadvantage  of  arsenite  of  lime  as 
an  insecticide  is  its  injurious  effect  on  foliage,  which  is  much 
greater  than  that  of  either  arsenate  of  lead  or  Paris  green. 

One  of  the  best  methods  of  making  arsenite  of  lime  is  to 
boil  1  pound  of  white  arsenic  and  2  pounds  of  good  stone  lime 
in  2  gallons  of  water  for  40  minutes.  Water  should  then  be 
added  to  make  this  mixture  up  to  300  gallons.  As  a  spray  the 
mixture  will  be  as  effective  as  one  consisting  of  1  pound  of  Paris 
green  to  150  gallons  of  water. 


§  2  ESSENTIALS  OF  FRUIT  CULTURE  5 

Another  method  of  making  arsenite  of  lime  is  to  boil  in  an 
iron  kettle  1  pound  of  white  arsenic  and  4  pounds  of  sal  soda 
in  1  gallon  of  soft  water  until  the  arsenic  dissolves.  A  small 
quantity  of  muddy  sediment  will  usually  be  found  in  the  bot- 
tom of  the  vessel;  this  should  be  discarded.  The  product 
thus  made  is  arsenite  of  soda,  which  is  one  of  the  ingredients 
to  be  used  in  making  the  arsenite  of  lime.  The  arsenite  of 
soda  should  be  kept  in  a  tightly  closed  jug  until  needed  for  use. 
To  make  the  arsenite  of  lime,  2  pounds  of  good  stone  lime  is 
slaked  and  diluted  with  2  gallons  of  water;  to  this  is  added 
1  pint  of  the  arsenite  of  soda,  and  the  mixture  is  stirred  until 
thoroughly  combined,  when  water  should  be  added  to  make 
40  gallons.  This  solution  will  be  equivalent  in  strength  to  a 
solution  of  1  pound  of  Paris  green  to  160  gallons  of  water. 
The  arsenite  of  soda  must  never  be  used  alone  as  a  spray, 
because  it  will  kill  all  foliage  with  which  it  comes  in  contact. 

6.  London  purple  is  a  by-product  obtained  in  the  manu- 
facture of  aniline  dyes.  This  substance  contains  poison  in  the 
form  of  arsenite  of  lime.  London  purple  varies  greatly  in 
composition  and  is  thus  likely  to  be  ineffective,  or,  if  used  in 
effective  quantities,  is  likely  to  injure  the  foliage  badly;  it  is, 
therefore,  not  used  to  any  extent  in  orchard  work. 

7.  Hellebore  is  a  poison  made  from  the  powdered  roots 
of  white  helleboro  and  it  is  sometimes  recommended  as  a  sub- 
stitute for  arsenical  poisons  where  insects  must  be  combated 
on  nearly  ripe  fruit.  This  poison  may  be  mixed  with  from 
5  to  10  parts  of  flour  or  of  lime  and  applied  dry,  or  it  may  be 
diluted  with  water,  1  ounce  of  hellebore  to  1  gallon  of  water, 
and  used  as  a  spray.  Hellebore  is  reasonably  effective  against 
insects  and  is  practically  harmless  to  man  in  the  quantities 
recommended;  it  is,  however,  too  expensive  to  be  used  except 
on  small  home  plantings. 


ESSENTIALS  OF  FRUIT  CULTURE  §2 


CONTACT    INSECTICIDES 

8.  Substances  used  to  kill  insects  simply  by  coming  in 
contact  with  them  are  called  contact  insecticides.     They 

can  be  used  successfully  as  sprays  against  many  soft-bodied 
insects,  such  as  plant  lice,  and  also  against  those  that  are 
stationary  during  the  greater  part  of  their  lives,  as,  for  exam- 
ple, the  San  Jose  scale.  Insects  that  have  sucking  mouths 
instead  of  biting  mouth  parts  cannot  be  destroyed  by  poisoning 
their  food  but  must  be  killed  by  contact  insecticide  sprays. 
Among  the  most  important  contact  insecticides  are  lime- 
sulphur,  self-boiled  lime-sulphur,  miscible  oils,  distillate  oils, 
kerosene  emulsion,  and  tobacco  extracts  and  decoctions. 

9.  Lime-sulphur,  a  combination  of  lime  and  sulphur,  has 
during  recent  years  come  into  '^general  favor  as  a  contact 
insecticide  and  has  also  been  found  to  have  some  value  as  a 
fungicide.  It  may  be  purchased  from  a  number  of  chemical 
manufacturing  houses  or  may  be  readily  made  at  home.  When 
sulphur  and  lime  for  making  this  solution  are  purchased  in 
large  quantities,  the  materials  necessary  to  make  a  barrel  of 
the  concentrated  solution  will  cost  between  $2  and  $3.50. 
The  entire  cost,  including  fuel  and  labor,  will  be  much  less 
than  the  cost  of  the  commercial  solution. 

Many  different  formulas  have  been  recommended  for  the 
making  of  lime-sulphur,  but  the  one  at  present  considered 
most  satisfactory  is  as  follows :  1  pound  of  the  best  stone  lime 
and  2  pounds  of  flowers  of  sulphur  or  of  ground  sulphur,  which 
are  boiled  in  enough  water  to  make  1  gallon  of  solution.  To 
make  50  gallons  of  solution,  about  10  gallons  of  water  is  placed 
in  a  kettle,  the  fire  started,  and  50  pounds  of  lime  added; 
after  the  slaking  is  well  started,  the  dry  sulphur  is  added  and 
thoroughly  mixed  with  the  slaking  lime,  enough  water  being 
added  to  maintain  a  thin  paste.  A  stick  graduated  so  that  a 
certain  depth  of  liquid  in  the  kettle  measured  by  this  stick 
will  be  50  gallons  is  convenient  for  determining  the  quantity  of 
liquid  in  the  kettle.  After  the  slaking  is  complete  and  the 
lime  and  sulphur  are  thoroughly  mixed,  enough  water  is  added 


§  2  ESSENTIALS  OF  FRUIT  CULTURE  7 

to  bring  the  liquid  in  the  kettle  to  about  55  gallons,  and  the 
boiling  is  continued  until  the  quantity  is  reduced  to  50  gallons. 
The  material  must  be  kept  well  stirred,  especially  during  the 
earlier  stages  of  the  boiling,  and  any  lumps  of  sulphur  must 
be  thoroughly  broken  up.  The  liquid  should  generally  be 
boiled  for  an  hour,  but  a  variation  of  10  minutes  either  way  is 
not  harmful. 

10.  Another  satisfactory  method  of  combining  the  lime 
and  sulphur  with  the  water  is  to  place  about  45  gallons  of  water 
in  the  kettle  over  the  fire  and  put  in  the  lime.  While  the  lime 
is  slaking  15  or  20  pounds  of  sulphiir  should  be  placed  in  a  large 
wooden  pail  or  small  butter  tub,  1  gallon  of  water  added,  and 
the  compound  worked  to  a  smooth  paste  with  a  paddle;  if 
another  gallon  of  water  is  now  added  and  thoroughly  stirred 
into  the  sulphur  a  very  thin  paste  will  be  formed  which  may 
easily  be  poured  into  the  kettle.  Another  quantity  of  sulphur 
should  then  be  prepared  in  the  same  way  and  the  process 
continued  until  all  of  the  sulphur  has  been  added.  In  using 
this  method,  it  will  probably  not  be  necessary  to  put  more 
water  into  the  kettle  after  the  sidphur  has  been  added,  because 
of  the  quantity  of  water  used  in  making  the  paste.  Dry  sul- 
phur should  never  be  added  to  a  large  quantity  of  water, 
because  the  sulphur  will  form  into  lumps  and  it  is  then  very 
difficult  to  get  it  combined  with  the  lime.  When  the  boiling 
is  finished,  the  solution  should  be  poured  or  strained  into  a 
barrel  or  settling  tank. 

When  a  steam  boiler  is  available  a  wooden  or  metal  tank 
may  be  used  with  steam  turned  in  to  do  the  cooking;  if  the 
steam  is  turned  in  at  the  bottom  of  the  tank  less  stirring  will 
be  necessary. 

11.  Before  lime-sulphur  is  placed  in  the  spray  barrel  or 
tank  it  should  be  carefully  strained,  because  it  always  contains 
considerable  sediment  that  will  not  pass  through  the  spray 
nozzle.  Several  forms  of  strainer  have  been  devised  for  this 
work,  but  in  all  cases  where  the  solution  passes  down  through 
the  strainer  the  screen  soon  becomes  clogged  with  sediment 
and  causes  much  trouble.     To  obviate  this  difficulty,  a  strainer 


ESSENTIALS  OF  FRUIT  CULTURE 


has  been  devised  at  the  Pennsylvania  State  College  Experi- 
ment Station  so  arranged  that  the  liquid  is  forced  to  rise 
through  the  screen.  This  strainer  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  1  and 
a  sectional  view  with  dimensions  is  shown  in  Fig.  2.  The 
liquid  is  poured  into  the  strainer  at  a,  passes  up  through  a 
removable  wire  screen  b  held  in  place  by  revolving  cleats  c, 
and  passes  out  through  the  facuet  d.  The  screen  may  be  of 
either  tinned  iron  wire  or  brass.  Tinned  iron  is  preferable 
for  lime-sulphur,  but  if  the  strainer  is  also  to  be  used  for 
Bordeaux  mixtiure,  brass  screening  should  be  used.     The  screen 

should  be  fine,  having  a  mesh 
of  from  30  to  40  to  the  inch. 


Fig.  1 


Fig.  2 


The  small  quantity  of  solution  that  remains -in  the  strainer 
may  be  saved  by  allowing  water  for  the  next  boiling  to  run 
through  the  strainer. 

12.  Lime-sulphur  should  be  stored  in  closed  barrels, 
because  exposure  to  air  causes  a  crust  of  crystals  to  form  on 
the  top;  this  crust,  however,  can  be  brought  back  into  solu- 
tion readily  by  dipping  it  off  and  boihng  it  for  a  short  time. 
If  the  barrel  is  not  closed,  a  very  good  method  of  preventing 
the  formation  of  these  crystals  is  to  pour  a  layer  of  parafifin 
or  of  oil  of  any  kind  over  the  surface  of  the  liquid. 

13.  The  question  of  a  convenient  method  of  cooking  lime- 
sulphur  is  worthy  of  some  consideration.  When  only  a  small 
quantity  of  the  concentrated  solution  is  required,  very  simple 
means  for  cooking  may  be  employed,  and  even  when  a  large  quan- 


§2 


ESSENTIALS  OF  FRUIT  CULTURE 


9 


tity  is  required  it  is  not  necessary  to  have  elaborate  or  expensive 
apparatus.     A  simple  apparatus  is  shown  in  Fig.  3.     It  consists 


I  1 

1  1           1 

Fig.  3 

of  galvanized-iron  wash  tubs  of  large  size  supported  over  a  fire 
on  iron  rods.  The  tubs  must  not  be  full,  because  the  solution 
is'  likely  to  boil  over. 
About  5  gallons  of  con- 
centrate can  be  cooked 
in  a  large-sized  wash  tub. 

In  Fig.  4  is  shown  a 
cooker  often  used  for 
cooking  feed,  making 
soap,  etc.  Such  a  cooker 
may  be  used  for  making 
lime-sulphur.  It  should 
not  be  filled  much  more 
than  half  full  on  account 
of  the  hkelihood  of  boil- 
ing over. 

An  inexpensive  tank  for  boiling  50  gallons  of  solution  is  illus- 
trated in  Fig.  5.     The  sides  and  one  end  are  made  of  2-inch 


Fig.  4 


10 


ESSENTIALS  OF  FRUIT  CULTURE 


§2 


plank  12  inches  wide  and  the  bottom  and  one  end  are  made 
of  sheet  iron.  The  plank  for  the  one  end  is  1  foot  10  inches 
long;  the  side  planks  are  7  feet  long,  and  are  cut  to  a  slant  at 
one  end  from  a  point  a  1  foot  from  the  end  to  the  comer  .b, 


Fig.  5 

as  shown  by  the  dotted  line  in  Fig.  6.  The  sheet  iron  for  the 
bottom  and  one  end  is  7  feet  7  inches  long  and  2  feet  7  inches 
wide.  These  dimensions  provide  for  turning  over  the  edges 
2|  inches  all  around.  The  sheet  iron  should  be  well  nailed  to 
the  planks  and  the  crevices  filled  with  white  lead.  This  tank 
was  set  on  a  fireplace  built  of  stone,  as  shown  in  Fig.  5.  A 
view  of  the  other  end  of  the  tank  and  the  smoke  vent  of  the 
fireplace  is  shown  in  Fig.  7.  The  cost  of  the  tank,  not  inclu- 
ding the  labor,  was  about  $3.     All  the  labor,  with  the  exception 


Fig.  6 

of  the  cutting  of  the  comers  of  the  sheet  iron  and  the  turning 
over  of  the  edges  was  done  by  the  farmer  himself. 

14.     A  more  elaborate  cooking  plant  for  lime-sulphur  is 
shown  in  Fig.  8.     The  tank,  which  is  of  sheet  iron,  is  set  between 


Fig.  7 


12 


ESSENTIALS  OF  FRUIT  CULTURE 


§2 


cement  walls.  These  walls  form  the  sides  of  the  fireplace, 
and  at  the  rear  is  a  smokestack  to  give  a  good  draft.  The 
grate  in  the  fireplace  is  made  of  iron  rods  built  into  the  side 
walls  6  inches  above  the  ground.  Fig.  9  is  a  closer  view  of  the 
front  end  of  the  cooker  and  shows  the  fireplace  and  the  pipe 
connections  from  the  tank  to  the  barrel. 


Fig.  9 

This  cooking  plant  is  of  sufficient  capacity  for  boiling  100  gal- 
lons of  lime-sulphur  and  was  built  for  $37.  The  following  is 
an  itemized  statement  of  the  cost: 

145-gallon  sheet-iron  tank,  second  hand $17.00 

Smokestack,  second  hand 5.00 

Cement  and  sand 5.00 

Labor  and  sundries 10.00 

Total $37X)0 

It  may  be  possible  in  some  cases  to  secure  a  tank  and  smoke- 
stack for  less  than  the  amount  named,  and  the  cost  of  the  other 
items  will  no  doubt  vary  somewhat  with  the  locality. 


13 


14  ESSENTIALS  OF  FRUIT  CULTURE  §  2 

15.  In  Fig.  10  is  shown  a  very  convenient  lime-sulphur 
cooking  plant.  This  plant  is  situated  on  a  side  hill  convenient 
to  the  source  of  water  supply,  and  the  arrangement  is  such  that 
no  dipping  of  water  or  spray  solution  is  necessary.  The  bank 
is  excavated  in  such  a  manner  that  a  ledge  is  formed  on  which 
the  cooking  tank,  scale,  and  strainer  are  set  and  where  wood, 
sulphur,  and  lime  may  be  placed  convenient  for  use.  The  top 
and  sides  of  the  ledge  are  faced  with  concrete.  A  driveway  is 
excavated  so  that  a  wagon  containing  a  barrel  may  be  backed 
up  under  the  strainer  faucet.  The  cooker  consists  of  a  cast- 
iron  firebox  5|  feet  long  and  18  inches  high  and  a  boiling  tank 
made  of  galvanized  iron,  of  the  same  size  as  the  firebox.  In 
this  tank  100  gallons  of  solution  can  be  cooked  at  one  time. 

16.  Concentrated  lime-sulphur  will  not  freeze  at  a  tem- 
perature much  above  5°  F.,  and  slight  freezing  does  not  seem 
to  injure  it  greatly,  especially  if  the  liquid  is  stirred  well  before 
it  is  used.  However,  the  solution  should  be  protected  against 
severe  freezing.  When  used  for  spraying  dormant  trees, 
lime-sulphur  solution  should  be  diluted  to  a  density  of  about 
1.03,  although  the  dilution  will  vary  somewhat,  depending  on 
the  kind  of  plants  to  be  sprayed.  To  determine  the  quantity 
of  solution  to  use  in  a  given  quantity  of  water  for  a  spray  of 
the  required  density,  it  is  necessary  to  have  a  hydrometer,  an 
instrument  used  to  measure  the  specific  gravity  of  liquids. 
Hydrometers  are  inexpensive  and  can  be  purchased  from 
dealers  in  orchard  supplies.  The  hydrometer  used  should 
be  made  for  liquids  heavier  than  water,  and  may  be  secured 
with  what  is  known  as  the  Baume  scale,  with  which  a  table 
is  necessary  to  find  the  specific  gravity,  or  may  be  secured 
with  the  specific-gravity  readings  direct  on  the  scale;  the  latter 
type  is  best  for  the  orchardist. 

17.  Fig.  11  shows  the  method  of  testing  the  density  of  a 
lime-stdphur  solution  with  a  hydrometer.  The  glass  a  is 
nearly  filled  with  the  solution  to  be  tested  and  the  hydrometer  b 
on  which  specific  gravity  is  marked  is  placed  in  it.  The 
hydrometer  will  float  and  the  specific  gravity  will  be  shown 
by  the  reading  of  the  graduated  scale  at  the  surface  of  the 


§2 


ESSENTIALS  OF  FRUIT  CULTURE 


15 


liquid.  The  following  examples  will  illustrate  the  method 
of  procedure  in  making  a  solution  of  any  desired  density  from 
a  more  concentrated  solution. 

Suppose  a  spray  having  a  density,  or  specific  gravity,  of 
1.03  is  desired,  and  on  testing  the  concentrated  liquid  with  a 
hydrometer  the  specific  gravity,  or  density,  is  found  to  be  1.30. 
The  number  of  volumes  of  water  to  be  added  to  form  the 
dilute  solution  may  be  found  by  dividing  the  decimal  part  of 
the  number  representing  the  specific  gravity  of 
the  concentrate,  .30,  by  the  decimal  of  the 
dilute  liquid  desired,  .03.  The  result  being  10, 
the  concentrate  contains  10  times  the  quantity 
of  combined  lime  and  sulphur  that  is  desired 
in  an  equal  volume  of  the  dilute  solution; 
therefore,  1  volume  of  the  concentrate  must 
be  added  to  9  volumes  of  water.  Suppose  the 
specific  gravity  of  the  concentrate  is  1.27 ;  then, 
.27 -4- .03  =  9,  and  1  volume  of  the  concentrate 
must  be  added  to  8  voliunes  of  water. 

The  division  of  the  decimal  to  determine 
the  number  of  times  the  solution  must  be 
diluted  is  easily  explained.  The  readings  of 
the  hydrometer  scale  gives  the  specific  gravity 
of  the  liquid,  which  is  the  weight  of  the  liquid 
as  compared  with  the  weight  of  an  equal 
volume  of  water.  In  this  comparison  the 
weight  of  water  is  taken  as  unity,  or  1. 
Because  lime-sulphur  solution  is  composed 
only  of  water  and  the  combined  lime  and 
sulphur,  a  specific  gravity  of  1.30  means  that 
the  .30  represents  the  combined  lime  and  siilphur  in  the  solution. 
Since  .03  is  the  amount  desired  in  the  dilute  solution,  dividing 
the  .30  by  .03  gives  the  ninnber  of  volumes  of  water  that  must 
be  added  to  the  concentrated  solution  to  form  the  required 
dilute  solution. 

The  dilution  for  commercial  products  is  generally  given  on 
the  container,  but  experience  shows  that  they  vary  from  the 
figures  given,  and  for  this  reason  it  is  best  to  use  a  hydrometer 


Fig.  11 


16 


ESSENTIALS  OF  FRUIT  CULTURE 


for  testing  solutions  whether  they  are  home-made  or  commercial 
products. 

Table  I  shows  the  specific  gravity  of  liquids  heavier  than 
water  for  different  Baume  degrees  up  to  36. 

TABLE  I 

COMPARISON     OF     BAUME     AND     SPECIFIC    GRAVITY    HYDROM- 
ETER   READINGS    FOR    LIQUIDS    HEAVIER    THAN    WATER 


Baume 
Degrees 

Specific 
Gravity 

Baume 
Degrees 

Specific 
Gravity 

Baume 
Degrees 

Specific 
Gravity 

I 

1.007 

19 

1-151 

28 

1.239 

2 

1. 014 

20 

1. 160 

29 

250 

3 

1.02 1 

21 

1. 169 

30 

261 

4 

1.028 

22 

1. 179 

31 

272 

4-3 

1.030 

23 

1. 188 

32 

283 

15 

1. 115 

24 

1. 198 

33 

295 

i6 

1. 124 

25 

1.208 

34 

306 

17 

I-I33 

26 

1. 218 

35 

318 

i8 

1. 142 

27 

1.229 

36 

330 

18.  Self -boiled  lime-sulphur  is  a  compound  used  to 
some  extent  as  an  insecticide  against  oyster-shell  scale  and 
other  summer  scale  insects.  It  is  used  more  largely,  however, 
as  a  fungicide,  and  for  this  reason  it  will  be  discussed  under 
the  heading  Fungicides. 

19.  After  treatment  with  certain  chemical  substances, 
certain  oils  may  be  combined  with  water  to  make  a  uniform 
mixture.  Oils  that  have  been  so  treated  are  known  as  mis- 
cible  oils,  and  in  combination  with  water  are  used  exten- 
sively as  contact  insecticides.  There  are  a  large  niimber  of 
brands  of  miscible  oils  on  the  market,  most  of  which  will  prove 
satisfactory  to  the  orchardist.  When  water  is  added  to  some 
of  thes'e  commercial  miscible  oils,  a  milk-white  emulsion  is 
obtained;  in  other  cases,  a  dark  emulsion.  It  is  very  easy, 
however,  to  determine  in  all  cases  whether  or  not  there  is  a 
good  mixture:  if  any  of  the  oil  comes  to  the  top  it  shows  that 


§2 


ESSENTIALS  OF  FRUIT  CULTURE 


17 


part  of  the  oil  is  not  combined  with  water.  Such  a  mixture 
should  never  be  used,  as  the  uncombined  oil  is  very  likely  to 
injure  the  trees.  The  average  fruit  grower  should  purchase 
miscible  oils  ready  made,  as  the  making  of  these  oils  is  attended 
with  considerable  difficulty.  However,  if  the  orchard  to  be 
sprayed  is  very  large  and  the  manager  has  some  chemical 
knowledge,  it  may  be  economical  to  make  the  miscible  oil. 

20.  For  convenience  in  the  discussion  of  the  making  of 
*  miscible  oil,  the  term  emulsifier  will  be  applied  to  the  chemicals 
used  to  bring  the  oil  into  such 
a  condition  that  it  will  mix 
with  water ;  the  oil  after  being 
chemically  treated  will  be 
termed  the  miscible  oil,  and 
the  combination  of  the  mis- 
cible oil  and  water  will  be 
termed  the  emulsion. 

The  materials  and  directions 
for  making  the  emulsifier  are 
as  follows:  Liquid  crude  100- 
per-cent.  carbolic  acid,  2 
quarts;  menhaden  fish  oil, 
2|  quarts;  granulated  caustic 
potash,  1  pound.  Heat  to 
300°  F.,  remove  from  the  fire, 
and  immediately  add  3|  quarts 
of  kerosene  and  5  quarts  of 
water.  These  quantities  will 
make  about  3  gallons  of  emul- 
sifier, which  is  sufficient  to  make  from  19  to  20  gallons  of  miscible 
oil.  The  carbolic  acid,  fish  oil,  and  caustic  potash  shordd  be 
placed  in  a  kettle  and  the  fire  started.  The  mixture  requires 
stirring  until  the  potash  is  thoroughly  dissolved.  A  cover 
should  then  be  placed  on  the  kettle  to  prevent  loss  from 
evaporation.  An  iron  kettle  is  suitable  for  making  the  emul- 
sifier. It  should  have  a  cover,  which  may  be  of  wood  or  metal 
with   a   small  opening  that   will   accommodate  a  perforated 

248— G 


Fig.  12 


18  ESSENTIALS  OF  FRUIT  CULTURE  §  2 

stopper  through  which  a  thermometer  can  be  inserted  into 
the  hquid  and  kept  in  place.  A  special  thermometer  graduated 
to  read  as  high  as  300°  F.  must  be  used,  and  the  temperature 
should  be  brought  very  gradually  from  around  260  degrees 
to  270  degrees,  since  at  this  point  the  mixture  tends  to  foam 
badly.  If  steam  under  60  pounds  pressure  is  available,  the 
mixture  may  be  boiled  in  a  jacketed  kettle  similar  to  the  one 
shown  in  Fig.  12.  The  steam  is  allowed  to  enter  through  the 
pipe  a  into  the  jacket  that  surrounds  the  kettle;  the  liquid 
after  being  boiled  may  be  let  out  from  the  kettle  through 
the  faucet  h;  a  vent  for  drawing  off  the  condensed  steam  is 
shown  at  c;  d  is  a  thermometer  inserted  through  the  hole  in 
the  cover. 

The  emulsifier  should  never  be  made  near  a  building,  as  the 
mixture  is  inflammable  when  hot  and  tjie  carbolic  acid  gives 
off  disagreeable  fumes.  When  a  temperature  of  300°  F.  is 
reached,  the  kettle  should  be  removed  immediately  from  the 
fire,  or  the  fire  should  be  quickly  quenched  with  sand  or  soil. 
The  hot  mixture  may  then  be  transferred  to  a  larger  vessel 
and  the  kerosene  added  at  once  and  then  the  water.  It  is 
dangerous  to  add  the  water  before  adding  the  kerosene,  and 
the  temperature  of  the  mixture  shoiild  not  be  higher  than 
212°  F.  when  the  water  is  added,  or  steam  will  form  and  throw 
the  liquid  out  badly.  This  emulsifier  will  remain  in  a  good 
condition  indefinitely. 

21.  The  second  part  of  the  process  of  making  miscible  oil 
does  not  require  the  application  of  heat.  A  moderately  warm 
day  should  be  selected  so  that  the  oil  will  not  be  too  thick, 
and  if  possible  the  emulsifier  should  be  placed  in  a  warm  room 
for  a  day  or  two  before  being  mixed  with  the  oil.  The  emul- 
sifier should  be  thoroughly  stirred  and  the  ingredients  of  the 
mixture  brought  together  in  the  following  order:  Emulsifier, 
8  parts;  paraffin  oil,  35  parts;  rosin  oil,  5  parts;  water,  1  part. 
This  mixture  should  be  vigorously  stirred;  if  there  is  a  large 
quantity,  a  garden  hoe  will  be  found  convenient  as  a  stirrer. 
At  first  the  mixture  appears  thin,  but  becomes  thicker  as  it 
is  stirred;  when  smooth,  it  should  be  tested  by  pouring  a  few 


§  2  ESSENTIALS  OF  FRUIT  CULTURE  19 

drops  in  a  glass  of  water;  a  milk-white  appearance  resulting 
indicates  a  satisfactory  miscible  oil.  If  the  milk-white  appear- 
ance does  not  result,  the  stirring  should  be  continued. 

All  that  is  necessary  in  order  to  form  the  emulsion  for  spray- 
ing is  to  add  water  to  the  miscible  oil.  To  make  a  spray  solu- 
tion for  use  when  the  trees  are  dormant,  from  10  to  15  parts 
of  water  should  be  used  with  1  part  of  oil;  and  for  a  summer 
spray,  25  to  40  parts  of  water  to  1  part  of  oil  should  be  used. 

22.  Kerosene  emulsion,  an  insecticide  similar  in  nature 
to  miscible  oil,  is  made  from  kerosene  with  soap  as  an  emul- 
sifier.  The  most  suitale  soap  for  this  purpose  is  either  whale- 
oil  soap  or  some  vegetable  soap,  although  common  laundry 
soap  will  suffice.  The  following  formula  is  most  generally 
recommended  for  kerosene  emtdsion:  Hard  soap,  1  pound; 
kerosene,  2  gallons;  soft  water,  1  gallon.  The  soap  should  be 
cut  into  fine  pieces  and  thoroughly  dissolved  by  heating  in 
the  gallon  of  soft  water.  The  vessel  of  boiling  soap  solu- 
tion should  be  removed  far  enough  from  the  fire  that  there 
will  be  no  danger  of  explosion,  and  the  2  gallons  of  kerosene 
added  with  a  small  spray  pump  that  has  the  nozzle  arranged 
to  throw  a  stiff  stream.  After  all  the  kerosene  has  been 
added,  the  pump  should  be  placed  in  the  vessel  containing 
the  mixture  and  a  stiff  stream  should  be  pumped  back  into 
the  solution  until  the  liquid  is  thoroughly  emulsified.  After 
a  few  minutes  of  agitation  the  liquid  begins  to  have  a  milky 
appearance  and  at  last  thickens  to  a  butter-like  mass,  in 
which  condition  it  will  remain  for  a  considerable  length  of 
time.  This  stock  solution  should  be  diluted  with  17  gallons 
of  water  for  use  as  a  spray.  If  the  weather  is  cold,  the  stock 
solution  may  not  mix  readily  with  water,  but  can  be  made  to 
mix  by  warming.  Pumps  used  for  spraying  kerosene  emulsion 
should  have  metal  or  marble  valves,  since  the  oil  destroys 
rubber  valves  very  quickly. 

23.  Distillate  oils  are  used  considerably  as  insecticides 
in  the  western  part  of  the  United  States.  Distillates  are 
made  from  oil  taken  from  wells  in  the  West,  and  those  com- 
monly used  for  spraying  have  a  specific  gravity  of   .89,  or 


20  ESSENTIALS  OF  FRUIT  CULTURE  §  2 

28°  Baiune  for  liquids  lighter  than  water,  although  occa- 
sionally those  having  a  specific  gravity  of  .90,  or  26°  Baume, 
are  used.  It  is  well  to  explain  here  that  there  are  two 
Baume  scales,  one  for  liquids  heavier  than  water  and  one 
for  liquids  lighter  than  water. 

These  oils  are  used  as  insecticide  sprays  in  two  forms;  in  the 
form  of  an  emulsion  and  in  the  form  of  a  mechanical  mixture. 
Emiilsions  are  made  in  the  same  way  that  kerosene  emulsion 
is  made,  but  more  water  is  used  for  diluting.  One  formula  for 
the  emulsion  is:  soap,  |  pound;  water,  1  gallon;  oil,  2  gallons; 
when  these  are  thoroughly  emulsified,  30  gallons  of  water 
is  added.  However,  the  distillate  oils  do  not  emulsify  so 
readily  as  kerosene,  and  for  this  reason  they  have  not  proved 
entirely  satisfactory  when  applied  in  the  form  of  an  emulsion. 

The  mechanical  mixture  is  made  •  by  rapid  and  thorough 
agitation  of  the  oil  and  water  in  the  spray  tank  or  barrel  at 
the  time  of  spraying.  This  agitation  breaks  the  oil  into  fine 
particles  and  mixes  it  with  the  water,  producing  a  spray  that 
has  a  milky  appearance.  The  use  of  this  mixture  is  also 
attended  with  some  danger  unless  used  in  a  very  dilute  form, 
as  the  oil  will  sometimes  enter  the  stoma  of  the  leaves  or  a 
place  where  an  injury  to  a  leaf  has  occurred  and  from  such 
places  will  penetrate  and  kill  the  surrounding  cells.  It  has 
been  found  in  California-  that  a  stronger  spray  can  be  used 
on  the  upper  side  of  the  leaf  -than  on  the  lower  side.  In  that 
state,  since  the  scale,  which  is  hard  to  kill,  is  located  on  the 
upper  side  of  the  leaf,  and  the  red  spider,  which  is  easily  killed, 
is  located  on  the  under  side  of  the  leaf,  it  has  been  found  prac- 
tical to  spray  the  upper  side  of  the  leaf  with  a  strong  mixture 
of  distillate,  and  at  the  same  time  to  spray  the  lower  side  of 
the  leaf  with  a  solution  in  which  twice  as  much  water  is  used. 
The  upper  side  of  the  leaf  should  be  sprayed  with  what  is 
known  as  the  undershot  nozzle — that  is,  a  nozzle  that  directs 
the  spray  altogether  downwards;  and  for  the  under  side  of  the 
leaf  a  nozzle  that  directs  the  spray  upwards  should  be  used. 
It  is  possible  to  have  a  pump  so  arranged  that  two  spray  liquids 
containing  different  percentages  of  oil  can  be  sprayed  at  the 
same  time,  and  thus  with  the  same  sprayer  one  man  can  be 


§  2  ESSENTIALS  OF  FRUIT  CULTURE  21 

using  an  undershot  nozzle  that  throws  the  strong  spray  mixture 
and  another  be  using  an  uppershot  nozzle  that  throws  a  weaker 
spray  mixture. 

24.  Tobacco  extracts  and  decoctions  are  good  sprays 
for  use  against  plant  lice  and  some  other  sucking  insects,  pro- 
vided they  contain  a  large  proprtion  of  tobacco.  Many 
proprietary  tobacco  decoctions  are  on  the  market  and  these, 
when  applied  in  accordance  with  the  directions  that  accom- 
pany the  package,  will  no  doubt  prove  more  satisfactory  than 
decoctions  made  at  home.  It  is  possible,  however,  to  make  a 
tobacco  decoction  at  home  that  is  reasonably  good.  For  making 
this  decoction,  tobacco  stems  or  tobacco  refuse  may  be  used; 
1  pound  of  tobacco  should  be  placed  in  1  gallon  of  cold  water 
and  the  water  heated  to  the  boiling  point  and  boiled  for  a  few 
minutes.  After  cooling  and  straining,  the  decoction  is  ready 
for  use. 

FUNGICIDES 

25.  Diseases  of  plants  result  from  the  growth  of  fungi, 
which  are  small  plants  that  feed  upon  the  tissue  of  larger  plants. 
The  sprays  used  for  controlling  the  growth  of  fungi  are  known 
as  fungicides.  These  sprays  will  not  kill  fungi  after  they 
have  secured  a  firm  footing  on  a  plant,  but  are  effective  in 
killing  the  germinating  spores,  which  are  the  reproductive 
bodies  of  fungi  and  correspond  to  the  seeds  of  higher  plants. 
Therefore,  to  be  of  any  benefit,  the  fungicides  must  be  applied 
before  or  at  the  time  of  germination  of  the  spores. 

Solutions  containing  some  form  of  copper  are  among  the 
most  valuable  fungicides  in  use  at  the  present  time.  It  has 
been  found  that  as  small  a  quantity  as  1  part  of  copper  to 
400,000  parts  of  water  will  entirely  prevent  the  germination 
of  the  spores  of  certain  fungi,  and  until  recently  practically 
all  of  the  fungicides  used  contained  copper.  However,  copper 
in  a  soluble  form  is  very  injurious  to  foliage  and  fruit,  and, 
as  it  is  difficult  to  make  a  spray  solution  containing  copper  in 
which  none  of  the  copper  is  in  a  soluble  form,  more  or  less 
injury  is  often  done  by  these  sprays.     For  this  reason  sprays 


22 


ESSENTIALS  OF  FRUIT  CULTURE 


§2 


that  do  not  contain  copper  have  been  in  demand  by  fruit  grow- 
ers during  recent  years  for  use  as  fungicides,  and  a  number  of 
such  sprays  are  now  used  to  a  considerable  extent.  Most  of  the 
fungicide  sprays  that  do  not  contain  copper  have  some  form  of 
sulphur  in  their  composition.  These  have,  been  found  to  con- 
trol many  fungous  diseases  very  satisfactorily  without  injuring 
fruit  or  foliage.  There  are,  however,  a  few  fungous  diseases 
that,  up  to  the  present  time,  have  not  been  successfully  con- 
trolled by  any  spray  that  does  not  contain  copper. 


Fig.  13 

26.  Bordeaux  mixture  is  the  most  important  and  best- 
known  fungicide  in  use  at  present.  It  is  made  of  water,  lime, 
and  copper  sulphate,  which  is  sometimes  called  bluestone,  or 
blue  vitriol,  enough  lime  to  precipitate  aU  of  the  copper  sul- 
phate being  used.  Bordeaux  mixture  was  first  discovered  by 
Professor  Millardet,  of  Bordeaux,  France;  hence  the  name.  A 
mixture  of  lime  and  bluestone  had  been  applied  to  grapes  along 


^  2  ESSENTIALS  OF  FRUIT  CULTURE  23 

the  roadway  to  keep  the  passers-by  from  bothering  them. 
Some  of  this  was  sprinkled  on  the  leaves  and  it  was  found  that 
these  leaves  did  not  become  diseased  and  fall  off  as  did  the 
leaves  on  the  rest  of  the  vines.  Professor  Millardet,  observing 
this,  began  to  experiment  with  a  mixture  of  copper  sulphate 
and  lime  as  a  fungicide  and  discovered  the  valuable  qualities 
of  the  spray  that  has  since  been  known  as  Bordeaux  mixture. 
The  following  formula  is  one  often  used  for  making  Bordeaux 
mixture  to  be  used  as  a  spray  for  trees  that  are  dormant: 
Copper  sulphate,  6  pounds;  fresh  stone  lime,  6  pounds;  water, 
50  gallons.  The  following  formula  is  recommended  when  the 
spray  is  to  be  used  on  fruit  trees  during  the  time  they  are  in 
foliage :  Copper  sulphate,  3  pounds ;  fresh  stone  lime,  3  pounds ; 
and  water,  50  gallons.  The  first  of  these  is  known  as  a  6-6-50, 
and  the  second  as  a  3-3-50  Bordeaux  mixture. 

27.  The  first  step  in  making  Bordeaux  mixture  is  to  prepare 
stock  solutions  of  copper  sulphate  and  of  lime  which  may  be 
kept  indefinitely.  Fig.  13  represents  a  simple  plant  that  may 
be  easily  constructed  for  making  Bordeaux  mixture.  The 
platform  a  should  be  of  sufficient  height  that  the  spray  tank 
may  be  driven  under  the  strainer  b  for  filling.  The  barrels 
shown  are  kerosene  barrels  holding  50  gallons.  To  make  the 
stock  solution  of  lime,  50  pounds  of  good  stone  lime  should  be 
placed  in  the  barrel  c  and  sufficient  water  added  to  slake  the  lime 
and  form  a  thin  paste.  When  the  lime  is  thoroughly  slaked 
the  barrel  should  be  filled  with  water  and  the  contents 
thoroughly  stirred.  The  liquid  will  then  contain  1  pound  of 
lime  to  1  gallon  of  water. 

28.  To  make  the  stock  solution  of  copper  siilphate,  the 
barrel  d  should  be  filled  with  water  and  50  pounds  of  copper 
sulphate  should  be  placed  in  a  burlap  bag  and  be  suspended 
in  the  water  near  the  surface,  where  it  will  dissolve  in  about  a 
day.  If  the  copper  sulphate  is  placed  in  the  bottom  of  the 
barrel  it  will  not  dissolve  for  many  weeks.  When  it  is  all  dis- 
solved the  solution  will  contain  1  pound  of  copper  sulphate  to 
1  gallon  of  water. 


24  ESSENTIALS  OF  FRUIT  CULTURE  §  2 

To  make  the  dilute  solution,  used  for  spraying,  from  these 
stock  solutions  is  a  very  simple  matter:  After  thoroughly 
stirring  the  stock  solution  of  lime  in  barrel  c,  6  gallons  for  the 
dormant  spray  mixture,  or  3  gallons  for  the  summer  spray 
mixture,  should  be  transferred  to  barrel  e  and  water  added 
to  half  fill  the  barrel,  making  25  gallons  of  the  solution.  In 
barrel  /  should  be  placed  either  6  gallons  or  3  gallons  of  the 
copper-sulphate  solution,  depending  on  the  spray  required, 
and  water  added  to  half  fill  the  barrel,  making  25  gallons  of  the 
copper-sulphate  solution.  These  two  solutions  shoiild  now 
be  allowed  to  run  together  through  the  strainer  h  into  the 
spray  barrel  or  tank  and  will  form  50  gallons  of  mixture  ready 
for  use.  To  connect  the  barrels  with  the  strainer  a  1^  inch 
hole  may  be  bored  into  the  barrels  near  the  bottom  and  pieces 
of  gas  pipe  about  6  inches  long,  inserted  and  connected  with 
the  strainer  by  pieces  of  rubber  hose.  When  desired  to  prevent 
the  liquid  from  flowing  from  the  barrels,  the  open  end  of  the 
rubber  hose  may  be  placed  in  the  top  of  the  barrel,  or  a  spigot 
may  be  used  in  place  of  the  gas  pipe. 

The  copper  sulphate  and  the  lime  solutions  should  not  be 
combined  until  just  before  the  spray  is  to  be  used,  as  the  mix- 
ture is  unsatisfactory  after  it  stands  for  a  considerable  time. 

29.  Bordeaux  mixture  before  being  applied  shotdd  be  tested 
to  make  sure  that  enough  lime  has  been  used.  This  test  is 
made  by  taking  a  small  sample  of  the  Bordeaux  mixture  and 
adding  a  few  drops  of  potassiiim  ferrocyanide.  If  no  change 
in  color  takes  place  there  is  sufficient  lime  in  the  mixture ;  if  a 
brownish  color  is  shown  more  lime  should  be  added.  Potassium 
ferrocyanide  may  be  purchased  from  any  druggist,  but  it  is  a 
deadly  poison  and  must  be  handled  with  caution.  Ten  cents 
worth  dissolved  in  a  pint  of  water  will  be  enough  to  test  all  of 
the  Bordeaux  mixture  ordinarily  required  in  a  season.  Another 
and  more  simple  method  of  testing  Bordeaiix  mixture,  although 
one  that  is  possibly  not  so  accurate  as  that  just  given,  is  simply 
to  hold  a  clean,  bright  knife  blade  in  the  mixture  for  at  least 
1  minute.  If  the  blade,  on  removal  from  the  liquid,  shows  a 
trace  of  copper  color,  more  lime  should  be  added.     Bordeaux 


§  2  ESSENTIALS  OF  FRUIT  CULTURE  25 

•mixture  may  be  easily  and  completely  cleaned  from  the  hands 
by  the  use  of  a  little  vinegar. 

30.  During  past  years  great  damage  has  been  done  to 
the  apple  crop  by  the  use  of  Bordeaux  spray.  If  there  is  any 
copper  uncombined  with  lime  in  the  solution,  serious  injury 
will  be  caused  to  the  leaves,  which  are  turned  brown  by  the 
copper.  There  is  more  liability  to  this  injury  if  the  mixture 
is  applied  diuing  damp  weather  than  if  the  weather  is  dry. 
It  has  also  been  claimed  that  Bordeaux  mixture  sometimes 
causes  leaves  to  turn  yellow.  Serious  injury  has  also  been 
done  to  the  fnut  by  causing  the  russeting  of  apples,  which  is 
the  result  of  a  corky  tissue  forming  to  heal  spots  where  the 
skin  was  killed  by  the  mixture.  It  is  thought  that  this 
injury  occurs  while  the  apples  are  small  and  still  retain  plant 
hairs;  a  weak  solution  consisting  of  2  pounds  of  copper  sul- 
phate, 3  pounds  of  stone  lime,  and  50  gallons  of  water  has 
therefore  been  recommended  for  the  first  two  sprayings  of 
apples. 

31.  Ammoniacal  copper  carbonate  is  a  solution  some- 
times used  as  a  fungicide  with  fairly  good  results.  It  is  made 
from  copper  carbonate,  6  ounces;  ammonia  of  about  .90  specific 
gravity,  or  26°  Baume,  3  pints;  water  to  make  50  gallons.  The 
copper  carbonate  is  dissolved  in  the  ammonia  and  the  solution 
kept  in  a  tightly  corked  bottle  or  jar  imtil  needed.  For 
spraying,  the  solution  is  made  up  to  50  gallons  by  the  addition 
of  water.  This  solution  does  not  stain  fruit  as  Bordeaux  mix- 
ture does  and  for  this  reason  its  use  on  ripe  fruit,  especially  in 
the  case  of  bitter  rot  of  apples,  may  sometimes  be  advisable; 
but  it  is  much  more  injurious  to  the  tree  than  Bordeaux  mix- 
ture, and  is  not  so  effective. 

32.  Copper-sulpliate  solution  consisting  of  from  1  to 
3  pounds  of  copper  sulphate  to  50  gallons  of  water  is  some- 
times used  as  a  fungicide  spray.  This  is  not  a  desirable  spray 
for  fruit  plants,  since  it  is  very  injurious  to  foliage;  however, 
it  does  not  leave  any  stain  on  the  fruit. 


26  ESSENTIALS  OF  FRUIT  CULTURE  §  2 

33.  Sulphur  dust  is  another  substance  that  has  con- 
siderable value  as  a  fungicide.  This  dust  is  used  to  combat 
powdery  mildew  of  some  fniits  and  also  some  other  plant 
diseases. 

34.  Potassium  sulpliide  is  sometimes  used  in  a  spray 
that  is  of  some  value  as  a  fungicide.  The  spray  is  made 
by  dissolving  potassium  sulphide,  sometimes  called  liver  of 
sulphiu:,  in  water,  at  the  rate  of  1  oiuice  to  2  gallons.  This 
solution  deteriorates  rapidly  and*  should  not  be  prepared  until 
needed  for  spraying.  It  is  of  value  principally  for  powdery 
mildew  on  berry  plants. 

35.  Lirue- sulphur,  which  has  been  discussed  under  the 
heading  Insecticides,  is  being  used  as  a  summer  fungicide  to 
replace  Bordeaux  mixture.  It  is  used  at  a  strength  indicated 
by  a  specific  gravity  of  from  LOOT  to  1.01,  or  from  about  1  to 
1|°  Baume,  the  exact  dilution  depending  on  the  kind  of  plant 
to  be  sprayed.  It  should  always  be  carefully  tested  with  a 
hydrometer.  The  number  of  times  it  is  necessary  to  dilute 
the  concentrate  solution  is  found  in  the  same  way  as  for  the 
insecticide.  Lime-sulphur  as  a  fungicide  has  the  advantage 
over  Bordeaux  mixture  that  it  does  not  cause  russeting  of 
fruit.  Lime-sulphur  has  been  found  to  control  apple  scab 
about  as  well  as  Bordeaux  mixture,  but  does  not  control  either 
apple  blotch  or  bitter  rot. 

Although  lime-sulphur  is  less  injurious  than  Bordeaux 
mixture,  it  has  shown  some  injurious  effects,  especially  to 
foliage,  and  should  never  be  used  as  a  fungicide  with  a  specific 
gravity  greater  than  1.01.  Although  lime-sulphiu"  is  a  promis- 
ing fungicide  spray,  it  cannot  be  unhesitatingly  recommended 
until  it  has  been  used  longer.  Bordeaux  mixture  was  used  for 
a  number  of  years  before  injury  to  fruit  was  observed  and  it 
may  be  that  succeeding  seasons  will. tend  to  bring  conditions 
resulting  in  greater  injury  from  the  use  of  lime-sulphur  than  so 
far  observed. 

36.  Self-hoiled  lime-sulphur  has  in  recent  years  come 
into  general  use  as  a  fungicide.  This  material  is  especially 
valuable  for  spraying  peaches  and  has  some  value  also  as  a 


§  2  ESSENTIALS  OF  FRUIT  CULTURE  27 

spray  for  some  other  fruit.  It  is  merely  a  mechanical  mixture 
of  lime  and  sulphur,  only  an  exceedingly  small  quantity  of  the 
sulphur  being  in  solution.  In  making  the  mixture,  no  heat 
is  applied  except  the  heat  of  the  slaking  lime.  The  mixture 
is  practically  harmless  to  fruit  and  foliage. 

Different  quantities  of  lime  and  sulphur  have  been  recom- 
mended for  making  this  mixture,  but  in  all  probability  a  strength 
of  6  pounds  of  sulphur,  6  pounds  of  lime,  and  50  gallons  of  water 
is  most  desirable;  in  case  of  a  very  serious  infestation  of  fungus 
8  poiuids  of  sulphur,  8  pounds  of  lime,  and  50  gallons  of  water 
may  be  used. 

This  mixture  can  best  be  prepared  in  rather  large  quantities, 
say  enough  for  200  gallons  of  the  spray.  The  required  quantity 
of  lime,  for  example,  24  pounds,  is  weighed,  placed  in  a  barrel, 
and  enough  water  to  nearly  cover  it  is  poured  in.  The  same 
quantity  of  sulphur  should  have  been  previously  weighed  and 
sifted,  and  when  the  lime  begins  to  slake  well  the  sulphur  is 
added  and  the  mixture  thoroughly  stirred;  water  is  added  as 
fast  as  possible  without  reducing  the  vigor  of  the  slaking. 
A  hoe  will  be  found  convenient  for  use  in  stirring  the  com- 
pound. The  mixture  will  at  first  be  a  thick  paste,  but  water 
should  be  gradually  added  until  a  thin  paste  is  formed.  As 
soon  as  slaking  ceases,  enough  water  to  cool  the  mixture  is 
added.  This  stops  all  further  change  and  is  very  important, 
since,  if  it  is  neglected,  chemical  combination  may  continue 
until  injurious  compounds  are  formed.  Cold  water  should  be 
used  for  slaking  the  lime.  When  cool  the  mixture  is  ready  to 
be  strained  into  a  spray  tank  and  diluted  with  water  to  the 
required  200  gallons.  A  mixture  of  the  strength  given  is 
practically  harmless  to  foliage  when  the  directions  given  are 
followed;  it  is  very  effective  for  spraying  peaches,  because  the 
down  of  the  peach  holds  the  mixture  on  the  fruit ;  it  is  not  so 
effective  for  spraying  smooth  fruit,  since  the  mixture  is  rather 
coarse  and  is  readily  washed  off  by  rain. 


28  ESSENTIALS  OF  FRUIT  CULTURE  §  2 


COMBINED  INSECTICIDES  AND  FUNGICIDES 

37.  The  season  when  the  most  common  orchard  diseases 
must  be  combated  is  also  the  season  for  combating  the  most 
serious  summer  orchard  insect  pests,  and  it  is  possible  to  com- 
bine insecticides  and  fungicides  and  make  the  one  spraying 
answer  for  both  purposes.  If  fungicides  and  insecticides  are 
combined  they  should  be  known  to  have  no  injurious  chemical 
effect  on  each  other.  Experience  has  proved  that  Bordeaux 
mixture  and  the  most  common  poisonous  insecticides,  arsenate 
of  lead,  Paris  green,  arsenite  of  soda,  and  arsenite  of  lime,  may 
be  combined  without  making  either  the  fungicide  or  the  poison 
more  injurious  to  the  foliage  or  less  effective.  In  combining 
arsenite  of  soda  and  Bordeaux  mixture,  it  is  not  necessary  to 
add  the  excess  of  lime  that  is  added  when  arsenite  of  soda  is 
used  without  Bordeaux  mixture,  since  the  Bordeaux  contains 
excess  lime.  When  lime  sulphur  is  combined  with  the  arsenate 
of  lead,  it  has  been  found  by  laboratory  experiments  that  both 
the  lime-sulphur  and  the  arsenate  of  lead  change  in  compo- 
sition rapidly.  However,  by  experience  in  the  orchard  it  has 
been  found  that  this  combination  spray  is  less  injurious  to 
foliage  than  is  lime-sulphur  alone,  although  the  efficiency  of  the 
arsenate  of  lead  seems  to  be  somewhat  reduced.  Lime-sulphur 
•  combined  with  Paris  green  has  been  used  as  a  spray  in  a  few 
cases  and  no  injurious  results  observed,  but  the  combination 
has  not  been  used  enough  to  justify  positive  conclusions. 
Experience  in  the  orchard  has  proved  that  lime-sulphur  com- 
bined with  arsenite  of  lime  is  much  more  injurious  than  lime- 
sulphur  combined  with  arsenate  of  lead.  In  fact,  arsenate 
of  lead  is  the  only  poisonous  insecticide  that  can  be  fully  recom- 
mended for  combination  with  lime-siilphur. 


§2 


ESSENTIALS  OF  FRUIT  CULTURE 


29 


SPRAYING   MACHINERY 

38.  Many  forms  of  spraying  outfits,  from  the  small  knap- 
sack sprayer  to  be  car- 
ried on  the  back  of  the 
operator  to  the  power  out- 
fit or  even  the  large  cen- 
tral compressed-air  outfit 
are  on  the  market .  Each 
type  of  sprayer  will  be 
discussed  separately;  the 
accessories,  such  as  hose, 
nozzles,  etc.,  will  be  dis- 
cussed under  oneheading, 
since  the  description  will 
apply  to  accessories  for 
any  form  of  sprayer.  It 
may  be  said  that  in  all 
spraying  apparatus  the 
parts  with  which  Bor- 
deaux mixture,  ammo- 
niacal  copper  carbonate, 
or  other  copper  sprays 
come  in  contact  should 
be  lined  with  brass  or 
enamel  or  should  be  of 
wood,  since  the  copper 
corrodes  iron  or  other 
metals.  No  part  of  an 
outfit  that  is  to  come  in 
contact    with    lime-sulphur 


Fig.  14 


should    be    made     of    copper. 


30 


ESSENTIALS  OF  FRUIT  CULTURE 


§2 


HAND  SPRAYS 

39.  Bucket  Spray  Pump. — ^For  a  few  small  trees  or 
bushes,  a  bucket  spray  pump,  a  type  of  which  is  shown  in 
Fig.  14,  may  be  used.  This  pump  has  a  removable  nozzle  a 
and  is  made  entirely  of  brass  and  has  a  small  air  chamber  b 
that  helps  to  equalize  the  pressure  and  cause  the  spray  to  flow 
more  steadily.  The  foot  rest  c  helps  to  hold  the  pimip  while 
it  is  being  operated.     A  part  of  the  pump  is  shown  removed, 


Fig.  15 


exposing  the  lower  valve  d  and  the  valve  e  in  the  plunger. 
Both  of  the  valves  are  made  of  brass.  A  strainer  shown  at  / 
is  placed  in  the  bottom  of  the  pump  to  prevent  the  entrance 
of  particles  that  would  injure  the  pump  or  clog  the  nozzle. 

40.  Knapsack  Sprayer. — The  outfit  illustrated  in  Fig.  15 
consisting  of  a  brass  force  pimip  surrounded  by  a  copper  or 
a  galvanized-iron  tank,  is  known  as  a  knapsack  sprayer, 
and  may  be  used  for  small  trees  or  bushes.     The  tank  holds 


§2 


ESSENTIALS  OF  FRUIT  CULTURE 


31 


about  5  gallons  and  is  made  to  fasten  to  the  back  by  means  of 
the  straps  c.  The  material  of  which  the  tank  should  be  made 
depends  on  the  spray  solution  to  be  used.  If  lime-sulphur 
is  to  be  used,  the  tank  should  be  of  galvanized  iron,  as  the 
solution  will  very  quickly  destroy  copper.  If  Bordeaux  mixture 
is  to  be  used,  the  tank  should  be  of  copper,  as  the  Bordeaux 
mixture  has  a  somewhat  injurious  effect  on  iron.  The  tank  is 
shown  in  (a)  with  a  portion 
broken  away  to  expose  the 
pump  to  view.  The  ptmip 
is  operated  by  means  of 
the  handle  a,  which  is 
attached  to  the  lever  ex- 
tending forwards  over  the 
shoulder,  as  the  outfit  is 
carried  on  the  back.  The 
pump  is  operated  with  one 
hand,  and  the  spray  rod, 
with  nozzle,  attached  to  the 
hose  h  is  controlled  with  the 
other  hand.  In  (6)  is  shown 
a  sectional  view  of  the 
pump  removed  from  the 
tank.  As  the  plunger  d  is 
raised  the  liquid  is  drawn 
up  into  the  chamber  e 
through  the  strainer  /,  the 
ball  valve  g  being  forced 
up  and  allowing  the  liquid 
to  pass  through.  As  the 
plunger  is  moved  down  the  valve  g  closes  and  the  liquid  is 
forced  up  through  valve  k  into  chamber  i.  As  the  pumping 
continues  and  more  liquid  is  forced  into  chamber  i  the  air  in 
the  chamber  is  compressed  and  a  steady  stream  of  liquid  is 
forced  by  the  pressure  out  through  tube  /  and  through  the 
spray  hose,  which  is  attached  at  k.  The  nozzle  shown  attached 
to  the  spray  rod  at  the  end  of  the  hose  may  be  removed  and 
any  other  form  of  nozzle  desired  may  be  substituted. 


Fig.  16 


32 


ESSENTIALS  OF  FRUIT  CULTURE 


§2 


41.  Compressed- Air  Hand  Sprayer. — A  convenient 
fonn  of  small  sprayer  is  shown  in  Fig.  16.  This  is  a  com- 
pressed-air hand  sprayer  made  to  be  carried  by  means  of 
a  strap  a  placed  over  the  shoulder.  The  sprayer  holds  about 
4  gallons  and  after  being  nearly  filled  with  the  spray  solution 
air  is  pumped  in  on  top  by  means  of  the  air  ptimp  h,  which 
works  on  the  same  principles  as  a  bicycle  pump.  The  spray- 
ing may  then  be  done  by  simply  opening  and  closing  the  shut- 
off  at  the  nozzle  until  the  air  pressure  is  exhausted,  when  more 
air  must  be  pumped  in. 


(«) 


Fig.  17 


('') 


42.  Barrel  Spray ers.^-Two  very  satisfactory  types  of 
hand  sprayers  for  use  in  small  orchards  are  illustrated  in 
Fig.  17  (a)  and  ih).  These  are  known  as  barrel  sprayers. 
The  pump,  which  should  be  of  good  workmanship,  is  mounted 
on  a  good-sized  barrel  in  which  the  spray  solution  is  placed. 
These  barrel  sprayers  may  be  mounted  on  a  wagon  or  sled 
as  preferred.  The  type  shown  in  (a)  has  all  of  the  heavy  parts 
of  the  pump  in  the  barrel  and  is  not  so  easily  upset  as  the  type 
shown  in  (6),  which  has  the  pump  and  air  chamber  on  top. 


248—7 


34  ESSENTIALS  OF  FRUIT  CULTURE  §  2 

43.  Double -Action  Spray  Pump. — Fig.  18  shows  a 
double-action  spray  pump  to  be  used  with  a  tank .  or  large 
barrel.  This  pump  has  a  long  leverage  and  for  this  reason 
is  more  satisfactory  than  barrel  sprayers  of  large  capacity 
when  much  spraying  is  to  be  done.  View  (a)  shows  the 
entire  pump,  which  has  two  cyHnders  a  and  b.  The  spray 
solution  enters  the  pump  from  the  barrel  or  tank  through  a 
hose  attached  to  the  inlet  c  and  is  discharged  through  the 
spray  hose  attached  to  the  outlet  d;  an  air  chamber  e  equal- 
izes the  pressure  and  causes  a  steady  flow  of  the  liquid. 
View  (6)  is  an  enlarged  view  of  the  pump  with  part  of  the  out- 
side removed  to  expose  to  view  some  of  the  valves  and  the 
lower  part  of  one  of  the  pistons.  As  the  piston  /  rises  the 
piston  g  descends,  the  valve  h  closes,  and  the  valve  i  opens, 
allowing  the  liquid  to  flow  into  the  cylinder  a.  As  piston  g 
rises  and  piston  /  descends,  valve  h  opens,  allowing  the  liquid 
to  flow  into  cylinder  b,  and  valve  i  closes,  preventing  the  Hquid 
in  cylinder  a  from  flowing  back  through  the  inlet.  A  sec- 
tional view  of  cylinder  a  is  shown  in  (c) .  When  the  piston  / 
descends  the  valve  i  closes,  the  liquid  is  forced  up  through 
valve  /  into  the  lower  part  of  the  chamber  e,  and  when  the 
piston  /  rises  as  shown  in  the  illustration,  valve  /  closes,  pre- 
venting the  liquid  from  passing  back  out  of  chamber  e.  As 
the  pumping  continues  and  more  liquid  is  forced  into  e  the 
air  in  the  chamber  is  compressed  and  causes  a  steady  stream  to 
flow  out  through  the  hose  attached  at  d.  Plugs,  which  should 
be  removed  to  allow  the  liquid  to  drain  out  of  the  pump  after 
spraying,  are  shown  at  k.  The  packing  around  the  piston  that 
prevents  leakage  is  shown  at  /.  This  may  be  replaced  by  remov- 
ing the  cap  m  and  may  be  tightened  by  ttiming  the  cap  down. 
Caps  that  may  be  removed  to  give  access  to  the  valves  are 
shown  at  n. 


§2 


ESSENTIALS  OF  FRUIT  CULTURE 


35 


POWER  SPRAYERS 

44.  Traction  Sprayer. — The  simplest  form  of  power 
sprayer  is  one  in  which  the  pump  is  operated  by  power  trans- 
mitted from  the  wheels  of  the  truck  by  means  of  cams,  eccen- 
trics, chains,  or  gears.  The  pump  has  nearly  always  a  large 
compressed-air  chamber  so  that  the  power  may  be  accu- 
mulated for  tirnes  when  the  truck  is  not  moving.     Traction 


sprayers  are  often  used  in  vineyards  and  are  very  satisfactory 
for  spraying  certain  truck  crops,  but  they  have  not  proved 
entirely  satisfactory  for  orchard  work;  one  of  the  reasons  for 
this  is  that  the  size  of  orchard  trees  varies  so  much  that  there 
can  be  no  certainty  as  to  whether  or  not  the  movement  of  the 
truck  will  be  great  enough  to  generate  sufficient  power  for 
spraying  during  the  time  the  outfit  is  standing  still. 


36 


ESSENTIALS  OF  FRUIT  CULTURE 


§2 


In  purchasing  a  machine  of  this  kind,  it  should  be  carefully 
examined  in  respect  to  workmanship,  because  only  a  good  one 
will  give  satisfactory  results. 

A  traction  sprayer  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  13. 

45.  Gas-Power  Sprayer. — In  one  class  of  sprayers  the 
power  for  producing  the  spray  is  furnished  by .  compressed 
carbon-dioxide  gas,  which  may  be  procured  from  supply  houses 
in  metal  drums  such  as  are  used  in  bottling  works.     The  spray 


Fig.  20 

tank  used  with  one  of  these  outfits  must  be  air-tight  to  retain 
the  gas,  which  enters  the  spray  tank  from  the  long  drum 
shown  in  Fig.  19.  This  outfit  can  be  mounted  on  a  light  wagon 
and  is  very  easily  operated,  since  all  that  is  necessary  to  keep 
up  the  pressure  in  the  spray  tank  a  is  to  turn  the  valve  h  -and 
let  in  gas  from  the  dnmi  c  until  the  desired  pressure  is  reached, 
as  shown  by  the  pressure  gauge  d.  The  safety  valve  e  allows 
the  gas  to  escape  and  thus  prevents  bursting  of  the  tank  in 
case  too  much  is  admitted  from  the  drum.     The  spray  solu- 


§2 


ESSENTIALS  OF  FRUIT  CULTURE 


37 


tion  is  forced  out  through  pipe  /  and  into  the  hose  g.  The 
pipe  h  may  be  opened  for  filHng  the  tank  with  the  solution. 
The  gauge  glass  i  indicates  the  height  of  the  liqtdd  in  the  tank. 
The  handle  /  is  attached  to  an  agitator  in  the  bottom  of  the 
tank  by  means  of  which  the  liquid  is  kept  stirred.  By  remov- 
ing the  cover  k  the  tank  may  be  cleaned. 

An  advantage  of  the  gas-power  sprayer  is  that  it  is  very 
simple  in  construction,  is  light,  and  can  be  used  in  places  where 
it  is  difficult  to  use  a  gasoline-power  sprayer.  However, 
because  of  the  cost  of  the  gas,  it  is  somewhat  expensive  to  oper- 
ate.    When  an  outfit  of  the  type  shown  is  used  for  spraying 


Fig.  21 


lime-sulphur  combined  with  arsenate  of  lead,  the  passage  of 
the  carbon  dioxide  through  the  mixture  precipitates  some  of 
the  lime  and  also  seems  to  cause  a  change  of  the  arsenate 
compound  in  the  mixture  that  may  produce  injurious  effects. 

46.  Gasoline-Power  Sprayers. — ^For  full-bearing  orch- 
ards of  15  acres  or  more,  gasoline-power  sprayers,  two  types 
of  which  are  shown  in  Figs.  20  and  21,  have  generally  given 
the  best  satisfaction.  As  the  name  would  indicate,  the  power 
for  these  sprayers  is  furnished  by  a  gasoline  engine.  The 
structure  of  gasoHne  engines  cannot  be  discussed  here;  how- 


38 


ESSENTIALS  OF  FRUIT  CULTURE 


§2 


ever,  in  buying  a  gasoline  outfit  the  construction  of  the  engine 
should  be  carefully  examined  and  the  purchaser  should  be 
certain  that  it  is  durable  before  buying.  Since  the  engine 
must  be  hauled  around,  generally,  with  one  team,  it  is  impor- 
tant that  it  be  reasonably  light,  and  durability  may  be  sacri- 
ficed to  lightness  to  some  extent.  It  should  not  be  assimied, 
however,  that  a  heavy  engine  is  always  more  durable  than  a 
lighter  one,  since  workmanship  figures  very  largely  in  the 
durability  of  engines. 

In  spraying  with  a  gasoline  engine,  probably  two  of  the  most 
essential  though  the  simplest  items  of  care  are  to  keep  all  parts. 


Fig.  22 

especially  the  cylinder,  oiled  with  good  oil,  and  to  keep  all  the 
bolts  tight.  The  small  engines  generally  used  with  spraying 
outfits  must  run  rapidly  and  if  any  bolts  are  loose  the  engine 
is  rapidly  worn.  In  case  the  engine  fails  to  work,  the  batteries 
should  first  be  tested  to  see  whether  the  spark  produced  is 
sufficient  to  ignite  the  gasoline.  The  gasoline  tank  should 
next  be  examined  to  see  whether  it  is  empty.  Then  the  spark 
plug  should  be  examined,  for  it  often  becomes  gimimed  or 
soaked  with  oil,  and  instead  of  a  spark  being  produced,  a  con- 
tinuous current  is  given  that  does  not  ignite  the  gasoline. 
The  gasoline  used  should  be  perfectly  pure,  as  the  presence 
of  water  or  dirt  in  the  gasoline  gives  much  trouble.     When 


§  2  ESSENTIALS  OF  FRUIT  CULTURE  39 

back-flaring — that  is,  an  explosion  with  a  jet  of  flame  from  the 
carbureter — occurs,  there  is  not  a  proper  mixture  of  air  and 
gas,  or  the  spark  occurs  at  the  wrong  time.  An  improper 
mixture  is  also  indicated  by  smoking;  in  this  case  there  is  not 
enough  air. 

47.  Compressed- Air  Sprayer. — A  type  of  compressed- 
air  sprayer  that  involves  the  same  principle  as  that  of  the 
gas-power  sprayers  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  22.  The  air  com- 
pressed in  one  tank  is  admitted  to  another  containing  the 
spray  solution,  and  forces  the  solution  out  through  the  spray 
hose.  The  air  is  compressed  at  a  central  plant,  usually  with 
a  large  gasoline  engine.  The  great  difficulty  with  this  type 
of  sprayer  is  insufficient  agitation.  In  some  of  the  com- 
pressed-air sprayers,  no  provision  is  made  for  agitation,  and 
in  others  the  air  is  admitted  to  the  spray  tanks  in  jet  that  will 
stir  the  liquid ;  and  in  still  others  the  tank  containing  the  liquid 
is  above  the  one  that  contains  the  compressed  air,  so  that 
before  the  liquid  is  sprayed  out  it  must  run  down  from  the 
liquid  tank  into  the  air  tank,  thus  giving  considerable  agita- 
tion if  the  liquid  is  sprayed  out  rapidly.  This  type  of  sprayer 
has  advantages  only  where  large  orchards  are  to  be  sprayed, 
in  which  case  only  one  engine  is  necessary  to  compress  the 
air  to  do  the  spraying  rather  than  several  engines,  as  would 
be  necessary  in  case  gasoline-power  sprayers  were  used.  The 
engine  for  compressing  the  air  can  naturally  be  larger  and  gen- 
erally of  a  type  that  will  give  less  trouble  than  in  the  case  of 
the  gasoline-power  sprayers,  and  the  plant  will  be  large  enough 
that  a  man  who  is  something  of  an  expert  with  gasoline  engines 
can  be  employed  to  run  the  engine  while  at  the  same  time  he 
looks  after  the  mixing  of  spray  solution.  However,  added  to 
the  difficulty  of  agitation  is  another  important  disadvantage; 
that  is,  with  one  large  gasoline  engine  compressing  air  for  a 
number  of  sprayers,  should  the  engine  get  out  of  order  all  of 
the  spraying  must  stop,  while  if  the  work  were  being  done  with 
separate  gasoline-power  outfits,  an  engine  out  of  order  would 
interfere  with  the  work  of  but  one  outfit.  In  general,  com- 
pressed-air outfits  have  not  been  found  satisfactory. 


40  ESSENTIALS  OF  FRUIT  CULTURE  §  2 


ACCESSORIES  FOR  SPRAYING  OUTFIT 

48.  Nozzles. — The  nozzle  is  one  of  the  most  important 
items  of  a  spraying  outfit.  During  the  past  15  or  20  years 
great  change  in  the  adjustment  of  nozzles  has  taken  place, 
and  only  three  types  of  nozzles  most  used  at  the  present  time 
are  discussed  here.  The  nozzle  probably  longest  in  use  of 
these  three  is  the  Bordeaux  nozzle,  illustrated  in  Fig.  23. 
The  spray  in  this  case  is  formed  by  a  straight  stream  striking  a 
lip.  The  fineness  of  the  spray  is  governed  by  the  width  of  the 
aperture.  If  the  hole  is  entirely  open,  a  straight  stream  will 
be  thrown  and  a  mist  will  be  formed,  varying  in  fineness  with 
the  degree  to  which  the  hole  is  closed.  At  best,  this  nozzle 
can  give  only  a  rather  coarse  mist,  and  it,  therefore,  was  being 


Fig.  23  Fig.  24 

discarded  until  the  fact  was  discovered  that  it  is  important  to 
have  a  coarse  spray  for  the  first  spraying  for  the  codling  moth 
of  the  apple,  and  the  Bordeaux  nozzle  seems  to  fill  the  purpose 
best.  In  using  this  nozzle  with  power  sprayers,  it  is  well  to 
have  two  connected  with  a  Y  similar  to  that  shown  in  Fig.  24, 
so  that  a  large  quantity  of  spray  can  be  thrown  at  one  time. 
Another  of  the  three  important  nozzles  is  the  Vermorel, 
which  is  shown  in  Fig.  25,  (a)  being  a  perspective  view  and  (b)  a 
sectional  view.  The  liquid  enters  the  nozzle  through  the  tube  a 
into  an  eddy  chamber  where  a  whirling  motion  is  given  to  the 
stream  by  the  spiral  deflector  b,  and  passes  out  through  the 
opening  c  in  the  center  of  the  cap.  This  nozzle  is  rather  trouble- 
some about  clogging,  but  it  is  provided,  with  a  needle  d  for 


§2 


ESSENTIALS  OF  FRUIT  CULTURE 


41 


pushing  out  the  obstruction.     The  needle  is  held  back  when 
not  in  use  by  a  spring.     A  disadvantage  of  the  needle  is  that 


(a) 


(h) 


Fig.  25 


the  spring  catches  on  limbs  and  twigs  and  gives  some  trouble. 
The  third  of  the  important  nozzles  is  what  may  be  called  a 
disk  nozzle.  It  has  no  needle  for  removing  obstructions,  as 
the  opening  in  the  cap  is  large  enough  that  there  will  be  no 
obstruction  if  the  spray  is  properly  made.  A  nozzle  of  this  type 
is  illustrated  in  Fig.  26  (a).  The  spray  liquid  is  forced  to  pass 
through  two  holes  in  a  brass  plate  shown  separately  in  view  (6) ; 
these  holes  slant  in  opposite  directions  and  give  the  liquid  a 
whilring  motion.     A  sectional  view  of  the  nozzle  is  shown  in  (c). 


In  this  view  h  is  the  brass  plate  shown  in  (6) ;  above  this  is  a 
leather  washer  c  which  separates  the  plate  h  from  a  thin  metal 


42 


ESSENTIALS  OF  FRUIT  CULTURE 


§2 


disk  d  and  forms  a  chamber.  The  Hquid  enters  this  chamber 
with  a  whirHng  motion  and  is  forced  out  through  the  small 
opening  a  shown  in  view  (a) .     The  parts  are  held  in  place  by  a 


Fig.  27 


Fig.  28 


brass  cap  e.  Practically  all  power  sprayers  are  provided  with 
a  nozzle  of  this  class.  Usually  one  of  these  nozzles  to  each  line 
of  hose  will  be  sufficient,  but  two  may  be  used  to  advantage 
by  a  person  who  has  had  considerable  experience  in  spraying. 
When  two  are  used  they  are  connected  with  either  a  U  or  a  Y, 
so  as  to  have  the  least  possible  projection  for  catching  on  limbs. 
Nozzles  should  practically  always  be  attached  to  the  rod  so 
that  a  line  projected  from  the  hole  in  the  center  makes  an 
angle  of  about  45  degrees  with  the  rod.  This  can  be  secured 
by  such  a  nozzle  as  is  shown  in  Fig.  27  or  by  a  bent  tube  called 
an  elbow  at  the  end  of  the  rod,  as  shown  at  a,  Fig.  28. 

49.  Extension  Rod. — The  rod  for  spraying  shotdd  gener- 
ally be  from  8  to  10  feet  long.  Rods  are  made  much  longer 
than  this,  but  the  very  long  ones  are  difficult  to  manage,  especi- 
ally when  the  liquid  is  sprayed  out  under  high  pressure.  These 
rods  may  be  made  of  ordinary  |-inch  gas  pipe  as  illustrated  in 


Fig.  29  (a),  or  they  may  be  made  of  brass  strengthened ' by 
bamboo,  as  illustrated  in  (h).  The  brass-bamboo  rods  are 
more  commonly  used  than  the  others  on  account  of  beins: 


§2 


ESSENTIALS  OF  FRUIT  CULTURE 


43 


lighter,  and  as  they  are  larger  in  diameter  they  fit  the  hand 
better.  .  A  rod  of  this  kind  should  always  have  a  ferrule  pro- 
jecting over  the  bamboo  at  the  lower  end  to  unite  the  frail 


Fig.  30 


Fig.  31 


brass  rod  with  the  stronger  bamboo  and  thus  put  the  weight 
of  the  rod  on  the  bamboo  instead  of  on  the  brass.  Rods  made 
without  this  ferrule  wiU  not  generally  last  very  long. 

50.  Cut-Off . — At  the  lower  end  of  the  spray  rod  should 
be  placed  a  cut-ofiE  that  can  be  operated  by  a  quarter  turn. 
A  cut-off  of  this  kind  is  much  more  economical  in  saving  the 
spray  mixture  than  one  that  must  be  turned  completely  around 
to  open  or  close.     A  good  type  of  cut-ofiE  is  shown  in  Fig.  30. 

5 1 .  Hose .  — The  hose  to  which  the  extension  rod  is  attached 
and  through  which  the  spray  is  pumped,  should  be  first-class 
five-ply  hose  or  stronger,  and  there  is  no  advantage  in  having 
it  large  and  heavy,  since  the  small  amount  of  friction  developed 
by  the  passing  of  the  liquid  through  a  small  hose  will  hardly 
be  noticed  in  the  working  of  the  outfit. 


Fig.  32 


52.  Hose  Clamp. — ^Fig.  31  shows  a  hose  clamp,  a  supply 
of  which,  together  with  some  pliable  wire,  should  be  kept  on 
hand  for  mending  hose. 


44 


ESSENTIALS  OF  FRUIT  CULTURE 


§2 


53.  Agitators. — All  insoluble  spraying  mixtures  should 
be  thoroughly  agitated.  There  are  various  types  of  agitators, 
for  both  barrel  and  tank  sprayers.  The  most  common  types 
of  barrel  agitators  are  shown  at  a,  Fig.  17  (a)  and  {h).  The 
most  satisfactory  agitator  for  the  power  sprayer  is  the  propeller 
agitator,  shown  at  a,  Fig.  32.  This  runs  with  a  uniform  strain 
on  the  engine  and  gives  thorough  agitation  from  the  bottom, 
where   agitation   is   most    beneficial.     The   swinging   agitator 


Fig.  33 

shown  in  Fig.  33  is  also  used  with  success  in  many  power  spray- 
ers and  is  the  type  used  with  hand-power  tank  sprayers. 

54.  Tower. — In  spraying  large  trees,  a  tower  from  5  to 
7  feet  high  should  always  be  attached  to  the  top  of  the  spray 
tank  or  to  the  wagon,  so  that  the  sprayer  can  stand  on  this 
and  direct  the  spray  downwards  into  the  tree.  Such  a  tower 
is  shown  in  Fig.  34. 


45 


VARIETIES  OF  APPLES 


TERMS  USED  IN  DESCRIBING  VARIETIES 

1.  Terms  Applying  to  Tree. — In  describing  any  variety 
of  apple  it  is  necessary  to  tell  something  about  the  kind  of  tree 
on  which  the  fruit  is  produced.  The  trees  of  different  varieties 
vary  considerably  in  size,  vigor,  form,  type  of  twig  produced, 
and  habit  of  bearing,  but  those  of  any  particular  variety  are 
very  uniform  in  these  respects. 

In  size,  the  trees  of  a  variety  may  be  habitually  large,  like 
those  of  the  Northern  Spy,  or  small,  like  those  of  the  Olden- 
burg. They  may  be  characteristically  vigorous  or  they  may 
tend  to  be  weak.  In  form,  the  trees  of  a  variety  may  be 
habitually  spreading  or  habitually  upright;  the  trees  of  a  num- 
ber of  varieties  tend  to  be  upright,  however,  until  loads  of  fruit 
cause  them  to  be  spreading;  on  the  other  hand,  the  trees  of 
some  varieties  have  the  upright  habit  so  strongly  fixed  that 
even  after  many  years  of  bearing  they  still  remain  upright. 
In  the  case  of  some  varieties  the  twigs  are  exceedingly  slender, 
and  in  the  case  of  other  varieties  they  are  strong  and  stocky; 
between  these  conditions  there  are  many  gradations.  The 
trees  of  some  varieties  are  uniformly  heavy  bearers;  those  of 
other  varieties  tend  to  bear  heavily  on  alternate  years;  and 
those  of  still  other  varieties  are  light  bearers.  The  location 
has  considerable  influence  on  the  bearing  habit  of  a  variety, 
and  in  the  descriptions  that  follow  the  trees  of  each  variety 
will  be  discussed  with  reference  to  the  section  to  which  that 
variety  is  best  adapted. 

2.  Terms  Applying  to  Fruit. — Among  the  terms  used 
in  describing  the  fruit  of  a  variety  are:  size;  form;  color  of 

COPYRIGHTED    BY    INTERNATIONAL    TEXTBOOK    COMPANY        ALL    RIGHTS    RESERVED 

§3 


VARIETIES  OF  APPLES 


Q   O 


skin;    color,  texture,  flavor,  and  quality  of    the  flesh;  form  of 
the  cavity;  and  form  of  the  basin. 

Size  in  fruit  is  expressed  in  terms  of  very  large,  large,  above 
medium,  medium,  below  medium,  small,  and  very  small. 
These  terms  are,  of  course,  relative;  consequently,  they  are 


Fig.  1 


incapable  of  being  defined.  The  Wolf  River  is  an  example  of 
a  very  large  apple.  The  Baldwin  and  the  Jonathan  are  exam- 
ples of  medivmi-sized  apples. 

In  describing  the  foiTn  of  an  apple,  the  terms  round,  oblate, 
conical,  ovate,  oblong,  truncate,  and  oblique  are  used  in  refer- 
ence to  the  appearance  when  the  apple  is  held  with  the  ver- 
tical axis  perpendicular  to  the  line  of  sight.  A  round  apple 
is  one  that  appears  roundish,  as  shown  at  a.  Fig.  1.     An  oblate 


§  3  VARIETIES  OF  APPLES  3 

apple  is  one  that  is  slightly  flattened,  as  shown  at  6.  A  con- 
ical apple  is  one  that  narrows  considerably  toward  the  blos- 
som end,  as  shown  at  c;  if  the  apple  is  round,  as  shown  in  the 
illustration,  it  may  be  designated  as  round  conic  to  distinguish 
it  from  other  forms  of  conical  apples.  An  ovate  apple  is  one 
that  is  egg-shaped — that  is,  one  contracted  toward  both  the 
stem  and  the  blossom  ends,  as  shown  at  d.  An  oblong  apple 
is  one  in  which  the  length  from  the  stem  end  to  the  blossom 
end  is  greater  than  the  transverse  diameter.  At  e  is  shown  an 
oblong  apple  that  is  conic  toward  the  blossom  end ;  this  form 
is  known  as  oblong  conic.  A  truncate  apple  is  one  that 
is  abruptly  flattened  at  the  end,  as  shown  at  /.  An  oblique 
apple  is  one  in  which  the  vertical  axis  slants  obliquely,  as 
shown  at  g. 

The  terms  regular  and  irregular  are  used  to  describe  the  form 
when  the  apple  is  viewed  at  right  angles  to  the  transverse  diame- 
ter. If  the  form  is  nearly  circular  the  apple  is  said  to  be  regular ; 
if  it  is  elliptical  or  angular,  the  apple  is  said  to  be  irregular. 

The  color  of  the  apples  of  a  particular  variety  will  vary  with 
the  conditions  under  which  the  fruit  was  grown.  However, 
the  fruit  of  a  given  variety  usually  has  certain  characteristics 
of  color  that  distinguish  the  variety  from  others.  In  descri- 
bing the  color  of  an  apple,  distinction  is  usually  made  between 
what  is  known  as  the  under  color  and  the  over  color.  The 
under  color  of  an  apple  is  the  ground,  or  basic,  color;  it  is  often 
a  yellow  or  pale  green.  The  over  color  is  the  color  that,  in 
some  varieties,  is  spread  over  the  under  color  in  the  form  of 
blushes,  stripes,  or  splashes;  it  is  usually  some  shade  of  red. 
The  term  blush  is  used  to  indicate  that  the  surface  is  overspread 
with  a  reddish  tint  that  is  not  much  broken.  The  color  of 
apples  is  also  affected  by  dots  found  on  the  skin.  These  dots 
may  be  prominent  or  submerged,  that  is,  they  may  stand  out, 
conspicuously  or  they  may  be  barely  perceptible ;  in  color  they 
may  be  white,  gray,  or  russet.  If  the  dots  are  star  shaped 
they  are  said  to  be  stellate;  if  they  shade  from  one  color  in  the 
center  to  another  on  the  outside  they  are  known  as  areolar. 

The  color  of  the  flesh  is  another  distinguishing  variety  char- 
acter.    The  flesh  may  be  white,  as  in  the  Mcintosh  and  the 

248— S 


VARIETIES  OF  APPLES 


§3 


Fanieuse;  it  may  be  tinged  with  yellow,  as  in  the  Jonathan  and 
the  Baldwin;  or  it  may  be  greenish  white,  as  in  the  Rambo.  In 
a  few  varieties  the  flesh  is  streaked  with  red,  as  in  the  Wealthy. 


Fig.  2 


The  texture  of  the  flesh  of  apples  varies  considerably,  being 
fine  grained  or  coarse  grained,  and  firm  or  soft.  In  addition, 
the  flesh  may  be  juicy,  as  in  the  Jonathan,  or  it  may  lack  in 
juiciness,  as  in  the  Ben  Davis. 


§  3  VARIETIES  OF  APPLES  5 

In  flavor,  the  flesh  of  apples  may  be  acid,  as  in  the  case  of 
the  Red  Astrachan;  subacid,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Jonathan; 
or  sweet,  which  means  that  the  acid  is  almost  entirely  wanting. 

In  describing  the  quality  of  the  flesh,  the  terms  poor,  fair, 
good,  very  good,  excellent,  and  best  are  employed.  As  used 
by  horticulturists,  however,  these  terms  designate  qualities 
higher  than  would  generally  be  understood  by  the  layman. 
For  example,  an  apple  described  as  good  is  one  of  only  medium 
quality. 

The  cavity,  that  is,  the  depression  around  the  stem,  differs 
somewhat  in  different  varieties  of  apples.  If  the  angle  formed 
is  wide,  as  shown  at  a.  Fig.  2,  the  cavity  is  said  to  be  obtuse; 
if  the  angle  is  sharp,  as  shown  at  b,  the  cavity  is  said  to  be 
acuminate;  if  the  angle  is  intermediate,  as  shown  at  c,  the 
cavity  is  said  to  be  acute.  The  terms  wide,  medium,  and 
narrow,  referring  to  the  spread,  or  width,  of  the  cavity,  and 
deep,  medium,  and  shallow,  referring  to  the  depth,  also  are 
used.  At  d  is  shown  a  wide  cavity;  at  e,  a  medium  wide 
cavity;  at  /,  a  narrow  cavity;  at  g,  a  deep  cavity;  at  /i,  a 
medium  deep  cavity;  and  at  i  a  shallow  cavity. 

The  form  of  the  basin,  or  the  depression  at  the  blossom  end 
of  an  apple,  is  also  a  variety  character.  The  basin  may  be 
shallow,  medium  deep,  or  deep;  it  may  be  narrow,  medium 
wide,  or  wide.  The  basin  whose  sides  show  a  sudden  slope, 
as  illustrated  at  /,  Fig.  2,  is  termed  abrupt;  if  the  sides  slope 
gradually,  as  shown  at  k,  the  basin  is  said  to  be  obtuse. 


VARIETIES  OF  APPLES 


DESCRIPTION  OF  VARIETIES 

3.  A  great  many  varieties  of  apples  are  offered  to  the  fruit 
growers  of  the  country  by  nurserymen.  To  describe  all  of 
these  would  be  neither  possible  nor  advisable  for  the  present 
purpose.  The  varieties  described  in  the  following  pages  are 
important  ones  that  every  orchardist  should  know.  The 
specimens  from  which  the  illustrations  were  made  were  col- 
lected from  different  regions  and  although  each  is  fairly  char- 
acteristic of  the  variety  to  which  it  belongs,  it  should  be  remem- 
bered that  the  same  variety  when  grown  in  different  sections 
may  assume  somewhat  different  characters.  In  other  words, 
varieties  of  apples  are  susceptible  to  change  of  environment. 


SUMMER  VARIETIES 

4.  Yellow  Transparent. — The  Yellow  Transparent  is  a 
variety  of  Russian  origin  that  was  introduced  into  this  country 
in  1870.  It  is  now  grown  commercially  in  many  sections  and 
is  a  good  variety  for  home  orchards.  The  tree  is  rather  a  slow 
grower  and  in  some  parts  of  the  West  suffers  considerably 
from  twig  blight,  a  disease  described  in  another  Section. 
The  tree  bears  at  an  early  age;  often  2-  or  3-year-old  trees 
will  set  considerable  fruit.  The  fruit,  when  mature,  is  above 
medium  in  size  and  of  a  beautiful,  clear,  yellowish-white  color. 
The  flesh  is  white,  juicy,  and  of  a  pleasant  flavor.  The  skin 
is  somewhat  tender  and  for  this  reason  the  fruit  must  be  picked 
almost  every  day  during  the  ripening  season  in  order  to  reach 
the  market  in  good  condition.  In  New  York  the  apples  begin 
to  ripen  in  July  and  continue  to  be  in  season  until  the  last  of 
August  or  early  in  September. 

5.  Red  June. — The  Red  June  variety  has  been  in  cultiva- 
tion for  a  long  time  and  is  widely  distributed.     The  tree  is 


§3  VARIETIES  OF  APPLES  7 

fairly  vigorous,  upright,  and  rather  dense.  It  is  productive, 
but  does  not  come  into  bearing  at  an  early  age.  The  fruit  is 
small  to  medium  in  size;  when  it  is  well  colored  almost  the 
entire  surface  is  a  deep  red.  The  flesh  is  tender  and  juicy, 
and  the  quality  is  good  to  very  good.  This  apple,  like  the 
Yellow  Transparent,  is  somewhat  tender  in  skin  and  must 
be  handled  carefully.  In  Virginia  it  ripens  in  late  June  or 
early  July;  in  New  York  the  season  is  from  late  July  to  early 
winter. 

6.  Early  Harvest. — The  Early  Harvest  is  one  of  the 
oldest  and  most  widely  disseminated  varieties  of  summer  apples 
in  America.  The  tree  is  vigorous  and  healthy,  and  comes  into 
bearing  rather  young.  The  fruit  is  medium  in  size,  pale  yellow 
in  color,  pleasant  in  flavor,  and  of  very  good  quality.  The 
fruit  has  the  fault  of  being  irregular  in  size  and  shape  and  there 
are  many  poor,  knotty  specimens,  so  that  in  general  the  variety 
is  hardly  to  be  recommended  for  commercial  planting,  although 
it  is  desirable  for  a  home  orchard.  In  Virginia  the  Early  Har- 
vest apple  ripens  about  the  last  of  June;  in  New  York  the  season 
isfrom  late  July  to  August. 

7.  Red  Astrachan. — The  Red  Astrachan  is  a  widely 
known  summer  variety.  The  tree  is  of  medium  size  and  fairly 
vigorous,  although  in  some  sections  it  is  not  very  productive. 
The  fruit  is  mediimi  to  large  in  size;  the  under  color  is  greenish 
or  greenish  yellow,  and  the  over  color,  which  nearly  covers  the 
apple,  is  deep  crimson,  either  shaded  or  in  splashes.  The  fruit 
is  a  little  too  sour  for  dessert  purposes,  but  is  excellent  for 
cooking.  The  apples  mature  unevenly  and  several  pickings 
are  necessary.  In  addition,  they  are  very  perishable  and  con- 
sequently not  well  suited  for  long-distance  shipment;  the  fruit  is 
generally  sold  locally.  In  Virginia  the  Red  Astrachan  ripens 
early  in  July;  in  New  York  the  season  is  from  late  July  to 
September. 

8.  Oldenburg. — The  Oldenburg,  or  Duchess  of  Oldenburg, 
is  a  Russian  variety  that  is  adapted  to  a  cool  climate.  It  is 
widely  disseminated  and  is  considered  to  be  one  of  the  most 


8  VARIETIES  OF  APPLES  §  3 

important  of  summer  apples.  The  tree  is  a  rather  slow- 
grower  and  medium  in  size,  but  comes  into  bearing  young, 
and  bears  well  in  most  localities.  The  fruit  is  medium  to  large 
in  size  and  roundish  to  oblate  in  form.  The  under  color, 
which  is  yellowish,  is  almost  completely  covered  with  irregular 
splashes  and  stripes  of  red  shaded  with  crimson.  The  fruit 
is  rather  too  acid  for  dessert  use,  but  is  especially  good  for 
cooking  purposes.  The  Oldenburg  is  a  valuable  commercial 
apple,  as  it  stands  shipment  fairly  well  and  is  generally  in 
demand  on  the  market.  In  Virginia  the  fruit  ripens  about  the 
last  of  July;  in  New  York  the  season  is  from  late  August  to 
September. 

9.  Beiioni. — The  Benoni  is  an  old  Massachusetts  variety 
of  apple.  The  tree  is  a  mediimi  grower  but  comes  into  bearing 
rather  young  and  bears  fairly  well.  When  the  tree  begins  to 
get  old  it  has  a  tendency  to  bear  crops  in  alternate  years  rather 
than  each  year.  This  fault  can  be  corrected,  however,  by  good 
cultivation  and  heavy  pruning.  The  fruit  is  excellent  in  qual- 
ity but  as  commonly  grown  is  rather  too  small  to  be  of  general 
market  value.  With  heavy  pruning  and  good  care,  however, 
the  Benoni  is  a  valuable  market  apple.  The  color  is  yellowish, 
oversplashed  with  red  and  striped  with  crimson.  Although 
the  ripening  season  of  the  fruit  is  rather  long,  the  entire  crop 
can,  as  a  rule,  be  harvested  in  two  pickings.  The  young  fruit 
is  resistant  to  severe  cold  and  for  this  reason  the  variety  bears 
in  some  sections  where  most  others  are  killed  by  frost.  The 
Benoni  seems  especially  well  adapted  to  the  Ozark  section  of 
Missouri.  In  New  York  the  fruit  begins  to  ripen  about  the 
first  of  August  and  the  season  extends  into  September. 

10.  Maiden  Blusli. — The  Maiden  Blush  is  one  of  the 
best  known  summer  apples.  The  tree  is  vigorous  and  hardy 
and  comes  into  bearing  rather  early.  The  fruit  is  above  medium 
in  size;  the  color  is  a  pale  yellow  with  a  crimson  blush  on  one 
side;  and  the  quality  is  fairly  good.  The  apple  is  suitable  for 
both  dessert  and  cooking  purposes  and  is  a  standard  market 
variety.  The  Maiden  Blush  is  desirable  for  either  commer- 
cial or  home  orchards.     In  Virginia  the  fruit  ripens  late  in 


§  3  VARIETIES  OF  APPLES  9 

July  or  early  in  August;  in  New  York  the  season  is  from  July 
to  September. 

11.  Gravenstein. — The  Gravenstein  is  a  summer  variety 
that  is  fairly  well  known  in  most  sections.  The  tree  is  a  strong, 
vigorous,  spreading  grower,  and  under  proper  culture  it  pro- 
duces crops  nearly  every  year.  However,  under  ordinary 
culture  it  has  a  tendency  to  produce  only  in  alternate  years. 
The  fruit  is  mediimi  to  large;  the  form  is  roundish  oblate;  and 
the  color  is  yellowish,  striped  and  splashed  with  red;  the  flesh 
is  yellowish  and  firm  and  the  quality  is  very  good.  In  Vir- 
ginia the  Gravenstein  ripens  in  early  August;  in  New  Jersey 
the  fruit  may  be  allowed  to  remain  on  the  trees  until  Septem- 
ber; in  New  York  the  season  is  from  late  September  to  early 
November. 

FALL  AND  WINTER  VARIETIES 

12.  Fall  Pippin. — The  Fall  Pippin  is  a  desirable  fall  apple 
that  is  grown  commercially  in  some  parts  of  the  East.  The 
trees  attain  a  large  size,  are  moderately  vigorous,  are  strong 
growers,  and  live  for  many  years.  The  fruit  is  large,  and  when 
ripe  is  of  an  attractive  yellow  color.  The  flesh  is  tender  and 
good  in  quality,  being  prized  for  both  dessert  and  culinary 
purposes.  The  crop  ripens  unevenly,  the  first  apples  often 
being  ready  in  September  and  the  last  not  until  a  few  weeks 
later.  The  fruit  and  foliage  are  very  susceptible  to  apple 
scab,  and  for  this  reason  good  orchard  treatment  is  necessary 
when  the  variety  is  grown.  Coming  as  they  do  in  the  fall 
before  winter  apples,  and  being  of  good  quality,  the  apples  are 
generally  in  demand  on  the  market.  The  variety  is  very 
desirable  for  home  orchards  as  well  as  for  commercial  orchards. 
The  fruit  ripens  very  unevenly;  it  can  be  kept  in  ordinary 
storage  until  December,  and  in  cold  storage  until  January  or 
February. 

13.  Sops  of  Wine. — The  Sops  of  Wine  variety  is  grown 
to  some  extent  in  home  orchards.  The  tree  is  medium  in  size 
and  rather  vigorous.      The  fruit  is  medium  to  large  in  size 


10  VARIETIES  OF  APPLES  §3 

and  of  roundish  form.  The  skin,  which  is  slightly  rough- 
ened, is  a  greenish  yellow  in  color,  almost  entirely  overspread 
with  purplish  red,  mottled,  irregularly  splashed,  and  some- 
times indistinctly  striped  with  dark  carmine;  the  skin  is  over- 
spread with  thin  white  bloom.  The  flesh  is  yellowish,  often 
stained  with  pink;  in  flavor  it  is  aromatic,  juicy,  and  of  good 
quality.  The  season  of  the  Sops  of  Wine  apple  is  from  August 
to  October. 

14.  Alexander. — The  Alexander  is  a  fall,  or  in  some  sec- 
tions a  late  summer,  variety  that  is  grown  commercially  in 
many  apple-growing  regions.  The  tree  is  a  strong  grower  and 
comes  into  bearing  at  an  early  age.  The  fruit  is  round  conic 
or  oblate  conic,  very  large  in  size,  but  coarse  in  texture  and  only 
fair  in  quality;  it  is  better  suited  for  cooking  than  for  dessert 
purposes.  However,  the  apples  are  very  attractive  in  appear- 
ance, being  greenish  yellow  or  pale  orange  and  overlaid  with 
stripes  and  splashes  of  bright  red.  The  fruit  usually  brings 
a  good  price  on  the  market.  In  Virginia  the  season  begins 
early  in  July;  in.  New  York  it  continues  until  September  or 
November. 

15.  Wolf  River. — The  Wolf  River  apple  is  similar  in 
many  respects  to  the  Alexander ;  in  fact,  it  is  supposed  by  some 
authorities  to  be  a  seedling  of  the  latter.  The  tree  is  fairly 
vigorous,  attains  large  size,  is  spreading  in  habit,  and  comes 
into  bearing  rather  late.  The  fruit  is  large,  broad,  fiat  at  the 
base,  round,  and  slightly  conic.  In  color,  the  fruit  is  yellow- 
ish or  greenish,  mottled  and  blushed  with  deep  red,  and  splashed 
and  striped  with  bright  carmine;  the  surface  is  covered  with 
ntunerous  large  to  medium-sized  areolar  pale  or  russet  dots. 
The  basin  is  usually  deep,  narrow,  abrupt,  and  rather  smooth. 
The  cavity  is  acuminate,  fairly  deep  and  wide,  and  heavily 
russeted.  Fig.  3  shows  a  Wolf  River  apple  that  was  grown 
in  Northwestern  Pennsylvania.  The  flesh  is  yellowish,  some- 
what coarse,  juicy,  but  only  fair  to  good  in  quality.  Largely 
on  account  of  the  high  color  and  large  size,  the  apples  are  in 
demand  on  the  market.  As  a  commercial  variety  of  late  sum- 
mer apple,    especially  in  the  Western  fruit-growing  regions. 


11 


Fig.  3 


12  VARIETIES  OF  APPLES  §  3 

the  Wolf  River  is  more  widely  grown  than  the  Alexander. 
Recently,  numerous  commercial  orchards  of  the  variety  have 
been  planted  in  the  East.  In  New  York  and  Pennsylvania 
the  Wolf  River  ripens  in  September,  but  the  apples  may  be 
kept  until  December  in  cellar  storage  or  until  January  in  cold 
storage. 

16.  Wealthy. — The  Wealthy  is  an  important  fall  apple 
that  is  extensively  grown  in  the  Central  States  and  to  some 
extent  in  the  Eastern  States.  The  tree  is  hardy  and  a  thrifty 
grower  when  young,  but  with  maturity  it  becomes  a  rather 
slow  grower.  The  fruit  is  from  medium  to  large  in  size,  roundish 
oblate,  fairly  uniform  in  shape,  and  of  very  good  quality.  The 
under  color  is  yellow  or  greenish,  heavily  overlaid  with  stripes 
of  red  and  marked  with  numerous  small  inconspicuous  pale  or 
russet  dots.  The  flesh  is  white,  sometimes  tinged  with  red. 
The  quality  is  very  good  and  the  fruit  is  desirable  both  for 
dessert  and  for  cooking.  In  New  York  the  fruit  begins  to 
ripen  about  the  last  of  September  or  the  first  of  October;  it 
can  be  kept  in  ordinary  storage  until  about  November  1,  and 
in  cold  storage  until  the  middle  of  January  or  later.  As  a 
commercial  variety  the  Wealthy  has  proved  profitable  in  many 
sections. 

17.  Twenty  Ounce. — The  Twenty  Ounce  variety,  known 
also  as  the  Cayuga  Redstreak,  the  Wine  Apple,  and  the  Lim- 
ber twig,  seems  to  do  particularly  well  in  favorable  locations  in 
the  apple-growing  belt  south  of  Lake  Ontario.  It  is  highly 
esteemed  for  home-orchard  planting.  The  tree  is  upright, 
moderately  vigorous,  and  dense.  The  fruit  is  very  large,  and 
is  usually  roundish  or  roundish  conic  in  form,  sometimes  broadly 
ribbed.  The  skin  is  thick  and  tough;  in  color  it  is  greenish 
at  first,  but  gradually  becomes  rather  yellow,  washed,  mottled, 
and  splashed  with  bright  red,  and  striped  with  carmine.  The 
flesh  is  whitish,  somewhat  tinged  with  yellow,  coarse,  moder- 
ately tender  and  juicy.  The  fruit  is  good  for  culinary  use  but 
only  second  rate  for  dessert.  The  season  is  from  late  September 
to  early  winter. 


§  3  VARIETIES  OF  APPLES  13 

18.  Fameuse. — The  Fameuse,  an  old  variety,  is  decidedly 
a  northern  apple,  being  one  of  the  most  important  com- 
mercial varieties  in  the  Champlain  district  in  New  York  and 
in  Southern  Canada ;  it  is  extensively  grown  also  in  Wisconsin 
and  Minnesota.  The  tree  is  of  mediiim  size  and  is  a  moderate 
grower,  fairly  healthy,  and  long  lived;  however,  trees  of  this 
variety  are,  unless  well  sprayed,  likely  to  be  seriously  injured 
by  apple  scab.  The  fruit  is  beautiful  in  appearance  and  excel- 
lent in  flavor;  it  is  very  desirable  for  dessert  purposes  and 
usually  sells  at  prices  above  the  average  for  apples,  being  in 
strong  demand  for  the  Christmas  trade.  The  fruit  is  about 
mediiun  in  size;  in  form  it  is  roundish  and  somewhat  conic. 
The  skin  is  of  a  light  bright-red  color  that  deepens  to  purplish 
black  in  the  best  colored  specimens,  with  a  striped  appearance 
toward  the  apex.  The  flesh  is  white  and  often  streaked  or 
tinged  with  red.  The  quality  is  very  good.  In  New  York 
the  season  of  the  Fameuse  is  from  October  to  midwinter. 

19.  Mcintosh. — The  Mcintosh  apple  is  similar  to  the 
Fameuse  but  is  adapted  to  a  wider  range  of  climatic  conditions. 
The  tree  varies  in  growth  and  productivity  according  to  the 
region  where  it  is  grown;  in  some  localities  it  is  considered 
to  be  a  slow  grower  and  not  very  productive ;  in  other  localities 
it  is  considered  to  be  a  strong  grower  and  to  be  hardy  and 
productive.  It  comes  into  bearing  fairly  early  and,  as  a  rule, 
yields  good  crops.  The  fruit  is  medium  to  large  in  size ;  roundish 
to  oblate  in  form ;  and  whitish  yellow  or  greenish  in  color,  deeply 
blushed  with  bright  red  and  striped  with  carmine;  ripe,  highly 
colored  specimens  become  a  dark,  purplish  red.  The  flesh  is 
white  or  slightly  yellowish  and,  like  that  of  the  Fameuse  is 
often  tinged  with  red.  The  quality  is  very  good  and  the  fruit 
is  highly  prized  for  dessert  purposes.  In  New  York  the 
Mcintosh  ripens  during  the  last  of  September  and  can  be  kept 
until  about  the  last  of  October  in  ordinary  storage,  or  until 
about  January  in  cold  storage.  The  Mcintosh  lacks  sufflcient 
firmness  to  stand  much  handling,  and  consequently  is  more 
often  sold  locally  than  otherwise.  However,  in  the  Bitter  Root 
Valley  of  Montana,  and  other  high  sections  of  the  West,  the 


14  VARIETIES  OF  APPLES  §  3 

variety  is  grown  rather  extensively  and  the  fruit  is  shipped  long 
distances  to  market. 

20.  Hubbardston. — The  Hubbardston  is  a  desirable  apple 
that  ripens  between  the  fall  and  late  winter  apples.  It  is 
grown  commercially  in  parts  of  New  York  and  Northern 
Pennsylvania,  and  in  most  cases  has  proved  to  be  a  profitable 
variety.  The  tree  is  vigorous  and  generally  of  good  size,  but 
tends  to  overbear;  unless  it  is  carefully  pruned  and  otherwise 
cared  for,  however,  it  is  likely  to  be  only  moderately  vigorous 
and  of  medi-um  size.  The  tree  is  susceptible  to  apple  canker, 
and  for  this  reason  it  is  well  to  top  work  the  variety  on  some 
such  variety  as  the  Northern  Spy.  The  fruit  is  medium  to 
large  in  size  and  generally  roundish  ovate  in  form.  The  skin 
is  either  smooth  or  roughened  with  dots,  flecks,  or  veins  of 
russet.  The  color  is  yellowish  or  greenish,  blushed  and  mottled 
with  red  that  varies  from  a  dull  brownish  red  to  a  bright,  clear 
red.  Large,  regular  dots  are  conspicuous  on  the  surface,  espe- 
cially on  the  red  portions  of  the  fruit.  The  prevailing  effect 
of  a  well-colored  specimen  is  red  mingled  with  yellow  or  green. 
In  Fig.  4  a  well-colored  Hubbardston  apple  is  shown  at  the  top 
of  the  page;  this  apple  was  grown  in  Northern  Pennsylvania. 
The  flesh  of  the  Hubbardston  is  whitish,  slightly  tinged  with 
yellow,  and  the  quality  is  very  good  to  best.  The  season  is 
from  October  to  January. 

21.  Puxnpkin  Sweet. — The  Pumpkin  Sweet,  often  known 
as  the  Pound  Sweet,  is  an  early-winter  variety  that  is  well 
known  in  New  England,  New  York,  and  Northern  Pennsylvania. 
By  many  it  is  esteemed-  as  one  of  the  best  sweet  apples  for 
baking,  but  generally  it  is  not  valued  for  dessert  because  it  is 
rather  coarse  and  has  a  peculiar  flavor.  The  fruit  is  sold  in  local 
and  special  markets  and  has  a  limited  demand  in  the  general 
market.  The  tree  is  medium  in  size,  is  rather  vigorous,  and 
tends  to  be  upright  in  habit.  The  fruit  is  large  to  very  large; 
the  form  is  globular  to  roundish  conic;  and  the  skin  is  rather 
thin,  tough,  and  smooth.  In  color  the  skin  is  green,  eventually 
becoming  clear  yellow,  marbled  with  greenish  yellow  stripes  of 
white  scarf  skin  radiating  from  the  cavity.     In  Fig.  4  the  apple 


Fig.  4 


§3     24909 


Fig.  5 


§3    24909 


§  3  VARIETIES  OE  APPLES  15 

at  the  bottom  of  the  page  is  a  Pumpkin  Sweet  that  was  grown  in 
Western  New  York.  The  flesh  of  the  Pumpkin  Sweet  is  tinged 
with  yellow,  and  is  firm  and  mediiun  in  texture;  the  quality  is 
good.  The  season  of  this  variety  extends  from  October  to 
January.  The  Pumpkin  Sweet  is  grown  commercially  only 
to  a  limited  extent,  but  is  often  found  in  home  orchards. 

22.  Northern  Spy.- — The  Northern  Spy,  more  commonly 
known  perhaps  as  the  Spy,  is  a  widely  known  winter  variety 
of  apple  that  is  grown  commercially  and  in  home  orchards  in 
about  the  same  localities  that  produce  Baldwins  and  Rhode 
Island  Greenings.  The  tree  is  large,  vigorous,  and  upright, 
but  is  a  slow  grower  and  comes  into  bearing  rather  late.  When 
mature,  however,  the  trees  are  good  yielders.  The  fruit  is 
usually  large  to  very  large  in  size  and  generally  roundish  conic 
in  form.  The  under  color,  in  the  case  of  well-matured  speci- 
mens, is  a  clear  pale  yellow,  which  is  nearly  concealed  by  a 
pinkish  red  splashed  with  carmine.  The  prevailing  color  effect 
is  red  or  reddish  striped.  In  underripe  apples  the  yellow  color 
may  predominate,  but  such  fruit  is  often  of  inferior  quality. 
In  Fig.  5  a  Spy  is  shown  at  the  top  of  the  page;  this  apple  was 
grown  in  Pennsylvania. 

Among  the  disadvantages  of  the  Spy  for  commercial  planting 
are  its  slow  maturity  and  the  fact  that  in  some  seasons  it  is  not 
a  reliable  cropper.  To  offset  these  disadvantages,  however,  are 
the  facts  that  the  Spy  is  well  and  favorably  known  on  the 
market  and  can  generally  be  depended  on  to  bring  a  good  price. 
The  season  is  somewhat  shorter  than  that  of  the  Baldwin  or 
Greening,  as  the  fruit,  particularly  if  bruised,  is  susceptible  to 
rotting  in  storage.  Usually  in  ordinary  storage  the  apples 
cannot  be  kept  much  later  than  February  or  March,  and  in  cold 
storage  they  are  likely  to  deteriorate  if  left  longer  than  March. 

23.  Tompkins  King. — The  Tompkins  King,  or  King,  one 
of  the  highest  quality  apples  produced,  is  grown  in  about  the 
same  region  as  the  Baldwin,  the  Northern  Spy,  and  the  Greening. 
The  tree  is  rather  vigorous  but  is  seriously  subject  to  injury 
from  sun  scald,  canker,  and  an  injur}^  that  occurs  to  the  trunk 
near  the  surface  of  the  ground,  which  is  generally  spoken  of  as 


16  VARIETIES  OF  APPLES  §  3 

collar  rot.  The  lateral  branches  are  rather  slender  and  some- 
what drooping.  The  fruit  is  large  to  very  large  and  in  form  is 
romidish  to  somewhat  oblate,  sometimes  inclined  to  conic. 
The  skin  is  smooth  or  in  some  cases  is  roughened  with  russet 
dots.  The  color  is  yellow,  mottled  and  washed  with  orange 
red  that  often  shades  to  deep  red  and  striped  and  splashed  with 
bright  carmine.  Numerous  white  or  russet  dots  are  con- 
spicuous on  the  surface.  The  prevailing  color  is  an  attractive 
red  with  a  small  amount  of  yellow.  In  Fig.  5  the  lower  apple 
is  a  Pennsylvania-grown  King  of  excellent  color.  The  flesh 
of  the  King  is  a  rich  yellow  in  color,  tender,  aromatic,  and 
juicy;  in  quality  it  is  very  good  to  best.  The  King  does  not 
keep  well  in  late  storage;  in  ordinary  storage  its  limit  is  Decem- 
ber or  January ;  in  cold  storage,  about  February.  It  is  probably 
at  its  best  about  Christmas. 

The  King  is  much  in  demand  on  most  markets,  and  sells  for 
good  prices.  It  is  very  attractive  in  appearance,  and  being  of 
excellent  quality,  is  well  adapted  for  fancy  trade.  However, 
the  fact  that  the  trees  are  so  subject  to  disease  makes  the 
planting  of  the  variety  commerically  a  questionable  practice. 
Some  orchardists  have  found  that  by  top  working  the  King 
on  some  variety  that  is  less  susceptible  to  collar  rot  better 
results  can  be  obtained  than  by  growing  the  trees  on  their 
own  stocks. 

24.  Yellow  Bellf lower. — The  Yellow  Bellflower  is  one  of 
the  oldest  of  American  varieties.  The  tree  is  large  in  size, 
vigorous,  a  good  grower,  and  fairly  hardy,  but  often  does  not 
produce  satisfactory  crops.  The  fruit  is  variable  in  size  and 
roundish  oblong  in  form.  The  skin  is  thin  and  smooth.  In 
color,  the  fruit  is  a  pale  lemon  yellow,  often  becoming  brownish 
yellow  where  exposed  to  the  sun.  The  apples  are  very  attract- 
ive and  are  excellent  both  for  dessert  and  for  cooking  purposes. 
The  flesh  is  white,  tending  slightly  toward  yellowish;  the 
quality  is  good.  By  some  the  flesh  is  thought  to  be  somewhat 
too  acid  early  in  the  season.  The  season  for  this  variety  is 
about  the  same  as  that  of  Tompkins  King,  the  cold-storage 
limit  being  about  January.     The  YeUow  Bellflower  is  grown 


§  3  VARIETIES  OF  APPLES  17 

extensively  in  home  orchards,  but  on  account  of  the  tendency 
of  the  trees  to  bear  poorly  it  is  not  grown  on  a  very  large 
scale  in  commercial  orchards. 

25.  Ortley. — The  Ortley  is  a  pale-yellow  apple  of  the 
Yellow  BeUflower  type  that  has  long  been  under  cultivation. 
The  tree  is  moderately  vigorous,  medium  in  size,  and  roundish 
or  spreading  in  form.  The  fruit  is  large  or  medium  in  size  and 
oblong  conic  varying  to  roundish  conic  in  shape.  The  skin 
is  moderately  thin,  smooth,  waxy,  and  of  a  pale  whitish-yellow 
color,  varying  to  rich  yellow  in  well-developed  fruit.  The 
flesh  is  whitish  tinged  with  yellow,  crisp,  juicy,  and  of  good 
flavor.  The  season  of  the  fruit  is  from  October  to  February. 
The  Ortley  is  severely  subject  to  attacks  of  various  insects  and 
of  the  scab  fungus,  and  requires  thorough  treatment  to  protect 
it  from  these  troubles. 

26.  Jacobs  Sweet. — The  Jacobs  Sweet  variety  has  about 
the  same  season  and  is  grown  in  about  the  same  localities  as 
the  Tompkins  King.  As  a  home-orchard  variety  it  has  con- 
siderable merit,  but  for  commercial  planting  it  is  not  particu- 
larly desirable.  The  tree  is  vigorous,  attains  good  size,  comes 
into  bearing  young,  and,  as  a  rule,  yields  crops  annually. 
The  fruit  is  large  to  very  large  and  is  of  roundish  form  inclined 
to  conic,  sometimes  slightly  oblate.  The  skin  is  tough,  slightly 
waxy,  and  glossy,  and  in  color  is  clear  yellow  or  greenish,  often 
with  a  blush  of  red.  Fig.  6  shows  a  Jacobs  Sweet  apple  that  was 
grown  in  Northern  Pennsylvania.  The  flesh  is  whitish,  tinged 
with  yellow,  juicy,  and  very  sweet.  The  quality  is  good,  the 
apples  being  especially  desirable  for  baking.  In  New  York 
the  season  is  from  October  to  March  or  April. 

27.  Blue  Pearraain. — The  Blue  Pearmain  is  an  old  variety 
that  was  at  one  time  extensively  planted  in  home  orchards  in 
the  East.  It  is  rarely  grown  in  commerical  orchards.  The 
tree  is  rather  large,  spreading,  and  moderately  vigorous.  The 
fruit  is  above  mediimi  to  large  in  size;  it  is  roundish  inclined 
to  oblate  in  form.  The  skin,  which  is  rough,  is  yellow,  washed 
and  mottled  with  red,  often  deepening  on  one  side  to  nearly 
solid  red,   splashed  and  striped  with  deep  purplish  carmine, 


Fig.  6 


IS 


Fig.  7 


§  3    24909 


§  3  VARIETIES  OF  APPLES  19 

and  overspread  with  an  abundant  blue  bloom,  from  which  the 
variety  derives  its  name.  The  flesh  is  yellowish,  rather  coarse, 
decidedly  aromatic,  and  of  good  quality.  The  season  of  the 
Blue  Pearmain  is  from  about  October  to  March;  often,  however, 
the  apples  begin  to  shrivel  if  kept  longer  than  January. 

28.  Banana. — The  Banana,  or  Winter  Banana,  variety  is 
grown  commercially  in  some  sections  of  the  Northwest.  It 
does  fairly  well  also  in  parts  of  the  eastern  and  central  apple- 
growing  regions.  The  tree  is  medirmi  in  size,  vigorous,  and  a 
fair  grower;  it  comes  into  bearing  early  and  yields  moderate 
crops,  being,  in  most  cases,  an  annual  bearer.  The  fruit  is 
medium  to  large  in  size,  and  roundish  conic  to  oblong  conic 
in  form,  often  oblate  and  flat  at  the  base.     The  skin  is  smooth, 

■  fairly  thick,  tough,  and  waxy.  In  color,  the  apples  are  a 
bright  pale  yellow  with  a  dark  pinkish  blush.  In  Fig.  7  a 
Banana  apple  is  shown  at  the  top  of  the  page;  this  apple  was 
grown  in  Pennsylvania.  The  apples,  being  yellow,  show  bruises 
readily.  The  flesh  is  whitish,  tinged  with  yellow,  moderately 
firm,  tender,  and  juicy;  the  quality  is  good  to  very  good.  The 
apples  are  better  for  dessert  than  for  cooking,  being  too  mild 
in  flavor  for  the  latter  purpose.  They  command  a  good  price 
on  the  market,  being  of  an  attractive  appearance  and  of  good 
dessert  quality.  They  will  keep  in  cold  storage  until  about 
March,  but  as  they  show  bruises  readily  it  is  generally  desirable 
to  market  them  earlier  in  the  season. 

29.  Baldwin. — The  Baldwin  is  by  far  the  most  important 
commercial  winter  apple  grown  in  America.  It  is  grown  exten- 
sively in  New  York,  Pennsylvania,  New  England,  parts  of 
Northern  Ohio,  Southern  Canada,  Michigan,  and  in  some  of 
the  high  mountain  sections  of  Virginia  and  West  Virginia. 
The  Baldwin  is  a  standard  fruit  in  both  American  and  foreign 
markets,  and  is  one  of  the  principal  varieties  handled  in  cold 
storage. 

In  sections  where  the  Baldwin  is  especially  adapted,  the  tree 
is  a  strong  grower,  long  lived,  and  vigorous.  However,  the 
tree  is  somewhat  slow  in  coming  into  bearing,  but  when  it 
reaches    maturity   it    bears    very    abundantly.     As    generally 

248—9 


20  VARIETIES  OF  APPLES  §  3 

grown,  the  tree  bears  biennially  rather  than  annually.  The 
fruit,  if  grown  properly,  is  usually  above  medium  in  size,  and  is 
rather  uniform;  in  form  it  is  roundish,  inclined  to  conic,  or 
sometimes  roundish  oblong.  The  cavity  is  acute  and  medium 
to  rather  deep;  the  calyx  is  small  to  rather  large;  the  basin  is 
abrupt,  and  varies  in  different  specimens  from  narrow  to 
moderate  in  width.  The  skin  is  tough  and  smooth;  the  color 
is  a  light  yellow  or  green,  blushed  and  mottled  with  bright 
red  and  striped  rather  indistinctly  with  carmine.  The  prevail- 
ing color  effect  is  red,  as  may  be  seen  in  Fig.  7,  which  shows  a 
Pennsylvania-grown  Baldwin  apple  at  the  bottom  of  the  page. 
Whitish  or  grayish  dots  are  conspicuous,  as  a  rule,  being  some- 
what numerous  and  smaller  toward  the  basin  than  toward  the 
cavity.  The  flesh  is  yellowish  in  color,  moderately  coarse  in 
texture,  and  the  quality  is  good  to  very  good;  the  fruit  is 
suitable  for  both  dessert  and  cooking  purposes.  In  New  York 
the  season  extends  from  November  to  March  in  ordinary 
storage,  or  to  May  or  June  in  cold  storage. 

Among  the  advantages  of  the  Baldwin  as  a  commerical  apple 
are  its  good  quality,  its  red  color,  its  good  shipping  qualities, 
its  good  keeping  qualities  in  cold  storage,  and  the  fact  that  it 
is  well  known  by  consinners.  These  qualities  make  it  in  demand 
on  the  market.  A  disadvantage  of  the  variety  is  that  it  is 
likely  to  be  troubled  with  Baldwin  spot,  a  disease  that  manifests 
itself  in  small  brown  flecks  in  the  flesh  of  the  fruit.  This 
disease  is  a  physiological  one  and  no  remedy  is  known.  Other 
disadvantages  of  the  Baldwin  are  that  it  tends  to  be  a  biennial 
bearer  and  that  unless  it  has  proper  culture  the  apples  are  likely 
to  be  small  in  size. 

30.  Smokehouse. — The  Smokehouse  is  an  early- winter 
variety  that  is  grown  rather  extensively  in  Southern  Pennsyl- 
vania, Maryland,  Delaware,  and  New  Jersey.  The  tree  is 
vigorous,  healthy,  and  hardy;  it  comes  into  bearing  rather  young, 
and  is  a  good  yielder,  usually  producing  crops  annually.  The 
trees  are  likely  to  form  dense  heads,  and  for  this  reason  should 
be  kept  well  pruned  to  insure  highly  colored  fruit.  The  fruit 
is  from  medium  to  large  in  size  and  generally  roundish  oblate 


-m^ 


21 


Pig.  8 


Fig.  9 


22 


§  3  VARIETIES  OF  APPLES  23 

in  form;  sometimes,  however,  it  approaches  oblate  conic. 
The  skin  is  thin  and  tough,  and  is  either  smooth  or  shghtly 
roughened  with  russet  hnes  and  russet  dots.  The  color  is 
yellow  or  greenish,  mottled  with  rather  dtdl  red,  sometimes 
deepening  to  solid  bright  red,  indistinctly  mottled,  striped,  and 
splashed  with  carmine.  Fig.  8  shows  a  Smokehouse  apple 
that  was  grown  in  Maryland.  The  flesh  is  lightly  tinged  with 
yellow,  and  is  rather  firm,  crisp,  and  juicy;  the  quality  is  good. 
The  Smokehouse  is  especially  prized  for  dessert.  Its  season 
is  from  October  to  February  in  storage. 

31.  Black  Gilllf lower. — The  Black  Gilliflower  apple  is 
well  known  in  the  markets  of  America.  The  tree  is  mediiun 
in  size,  a  vigorous  grower,  and  generally  a  reliable  cropper. 
The  fruit  is  medium  in  size,  and  very  characteristic  in  form, 
being  long  ovate  to  oblong  conic.  The  skin  is  thick,  tough, 
and  smooth.  The  color  is  yellowish  or  greenish,  generally 
covered  with  red,  which,  in  highly  colored  specimens,  becomes 
a  dull  purple.  Fig.  9  shows  a  Black  Gilliflower  apple.  The 
flesh  is  whitish  or  yellowish  and  becomes  mellow  on  standing. 
The  Black  Gilliflower  seems  to  be  in  considerable  demand  in 
southern  markets.  It  is  grown  commercially  to  some  extent, 
largely  on  account  of  being  a  v/ell-known  variety  that  will 
bring  fair  prices  on  the  market.  The  season  is  frorn  October 
to  January  or  February. 

32.  Missouri. — The  Missouri,  or  Missouri  Pippin,  is  a 
well-known  market  apple  of  the  Middle  West,  especially  of  Mis- 
souri, Kansas,  and  Illinois.  The  tree  is  moderately  vigorous, 
irregular  in  outline,  and  rather  short  lived;  in  the  Mississippi 
Valley  the  trees  usually  do  not  live  to  be  more  than  20  years 
old.  The  trees  come  into  bearing  young,  however,  and  for 
this  reason  they  are  much  used  for  fillers  in  commercial  orchards. 
The  fruit  is  medium  to  small  in  size,  and  roundish  inclined  to 
conic  in  form.  The  skin  is  thick,  tough,  smooth,  glossy,  and 
thinly  coated  with  a  grayish  bloom.  The  color  is  a  pale  green 
overspread  with  bright  red  and  striped  with  purplish  red. 
Highly  colored  specimens  are  almost  solid  red,  except  for 
conspicuous  russet  or  pale-gray   dots.     A   Missouri   apple  is 


Fig.  10 


24 


25 


Fig.  11 


Fig.  12 


26 


§  3  VARIETIES  OF  APPLES  27 

illustrated  in  Fig.  10.  The  flesh  is  yellowish  or  greenish,  firm, 
medium  to  rather  fine  grained,  rather  tough,  and  not  very 
juicy.  The  quality  is  fair  to  good.  The  season  in  common 
storage  extends  to  January,  and  in  cold  storage  to  about  April. 

33.  Rambo. — The  Rambo  is  a  northern  apple  that  has 
been  under  cultivation  in  America  for  a  long  time.  Its  origin 
is  unknown.  The  tree  is  of  medium  size,  moderately  vigor- 
ous, and  susceptible  to  winter  killing.  The  wood  is  brittle 
and  for  this  reason  the  branches  are  easily  broken.  The  fruit 
is  medi-um  in  size  and  roundish  or  somewhat  oblate  in  form. 
The  skin  is  thin  and  rather  tough;  in  color  it  is  a  pale  greenish 
yellow,  mottled  with  red  and  striped  with  carmine.  The  pre- 
vailing color  is  a  red  with  contrasting  yellow.  Fig.  11  shows 
a  Rambo  that  was  grown  in  Southern  New  York.  The  flesh 
is  white,  tinged  with  yellow  or  green;  it  is  juicy,  rather  fine 
grained,  and  of  good  to  very  good  quality,  particularly  for 
dessert.  The  variety  is  recommended  for  home-orchard  plant- 
ing, but  it  is  not  especially  desirable  for  commercial  orchards. 
Niunerous  small  Rambo  orchards  are  found  in  New  York, 
Pennsylvania,  Ohio,  and  some  of  the  Central  States.  In 
ordinary  storage  the  apples  keep  imtil  November,  and  in  cold 
storage  until  February. 

34.  Ribston. — The  Ribston  is  an  apple  that  is  in  season 
about  with  Hubbardston  and  Tompkins  King.  It  is  an  old 
variety,  having  originated  over  200  years  ago  in  Yorkshire, 
England.  It  is  grown  commercially  in  Nova  Scotia  and  Onta- 
rio, and  much  of  the  fruit  is  exported  to  England.  ,  The  tree 
is  medium  in  size,  hardy,  vigorous,  healthy,  comes  into  bear- 
ing young,  and  is  usually  an  annual  bearer.  The  fruit  is 
medium  in  size  and  is  roundish  in  form,  often  somewhat  flat- 
tened at  the  base.  The  skin  is  either  smooth  or  slightly  rough- 
ened with  russet ;  in  color  it  is  a  deep  yellow  or  greenish  yellow, 
overspread  with  a  dull  red.  Fig.  12  shows  a  Ribston  apple 
that  was  grown  in  Nova  Scotia.  The  flesh  is  tinged  with  yel- 
low, is  firm  and  juicy,  and  the  quality  is  very  good.  The 
season  extends  from  September  to  December  or  January  or 
later. 


^;  I? 


Fig.  13 


28 


29 


Fig.  14 


30  VARIETIES  OF  APPLES  §  3 

35.  Tolman. — The  Tolman,  or  Tolman  Sweet,  is  a  yellow, 
rather  attractive  sweet  apple  that  is  grown  to  a  limited  extent 
in  New  England,  New  York,  Pennsylvania,  Southern  Canada, 
and  in  the  prairie  regions  of  the  Central  States.  The  tree  is 
moderately  vigorous,  a  good  grower,  long  lived,  and  very 
hardy.  The  fruit  is  about  average  in  size,  and  is  nearly  glob- 
ular in  form.  The  skin  is  tough  and  in  many  specimens  is 
marked  by  a  suture  line  that  extends  out  from  the  cavity  and 
sometimes  reaches  as  far  as  the  basin.  The  color  is  a  pale 
yellow,  sometimes  slightly  blushed.  Fig.  13  shows  a  Tolman 
apple.  The  flesh  is  white,  firm,  and  rather  hard;  in  quality  it 
is  very  good.  The  taste  is  decidedly  sweet.  The  variety  is 
not  planted  to  any  extent  in  commercial  orchards;  but  often 
the  fruit  from  small  orchards  can  be  disposed  of  locally  to  a 
special  trade.  In  ordinary  storage  the  apples  will  keep  until 
about  January  1  and  in  cold  storage  to  about  March  or  April. 

36.  York  Imperial. — The  York  Imperial,  known  locally 
as  the  Hillside  apple,  is  a  widely  known  variety  that  is  grown 
commercially  in  Southern  Pennsylvania,  Maryland,  Virginia, 
West  Virginia,  and  westward  into  Missouri  and  Kansas.  When 
grown  in  regions  farther  north,  the  fruit  is  likely  to  be  deficient 
in  size,  color,  and  quality.  This  variety  originated  as  a  chance 
seedling  near  York,  Pennsylvania,  and  largely  on  account  of 
its  excellent  keeping  quality  when  kept  in  ordinary  storage, 
it  soon  became  distributed  to  the  near-by  regions  and  later 
was  adopted  for  commercial  planting  in  the  Central  States. 

The  tree  is  vigorous,  a  thrifty  grower,  a  good  cropper,  and 
bears  biennially,  or,  in  some  cases,  annually.  The  fruit  is 
medium  to  large  when  grown  under  favorable  conditions. 
In  form  it  is  roundish  oblate  and  distinctly  oblique,  or  lop- 
sided, as  shown  in  Fig.  14,  which  illustrates  a  York  Imperial 
apple  from  Southern  Pennsylvania.  The  lopsided  form  is  a 
distinct  characteristic  of  the  variety.  The  skin  is  tough, 
bright,  and  smooth.  The  color  is  a  green  or  a  yellow  blushed 
with  a  pinkish  red  and  sometimes  striped  indistinctly  with 
carmine.  The  flesh  is  yellowish,  firm,  and  fairly  juicy;  in 
quality  it  is  generally  good,  but  in  some  cases  only  fair.     The 


31 


Fig.  15 


Fig.  16 


32 


§  3  VARIETIES  OF  APPLES  33 

fruit  varies  as  to  the  length  of  time  it  will  keep  in  storage. 
In  cellar  storage  it  will  sometimes  keep  until  April  or  later 
and  at  other  times  it  may  last  only  through  January.  In 
cold  storage  it  seems  to  scald  badly,  and  may  last  only  through 
February. 

37.  Smith  Cider. — The  Smith  Cider  apple  is  well  known 
in  Southeastern  Pennsylvania  and  Northeastern  Maryland 
and  is  grown  to  some  extent  in  Western  Ohio  and  Eastern 
Indiana,  principally  in  home  orchards.  The  tree  is  moderately 
vigorous  and  has  long,  stout,  straggling  branches.  The  fruit 
when  well  grown  is  from  medium  to  large  in  size,  but  under 
average  conditions  it  is  below  medium.  The  form  is  round, 
sometimes  oblate  inclined  to  conic.  Occasionally,  the  sides 
are  unequal,  as  in  the  York  Imperial.  The  skin  is  thin  and 
tough  and  either  smooth  or  slightly  roughened  with  russet 
lines  about  the  basin.  The  color  is  a  pale  yellow  or  green, 
mottled  and  shaded  with  pinkish  red,  and  splashed  and  striped 
with  a  bright  carmine.  The  prevailing  color  effect  is  a  striped 
pinkish  red.  Fig.  15  shows  a  Smith  Cider  apple  that  was 
grown  in  Maryland.  The  flesh  is  whitish  in  color  and  firm  in 
texture.  The  apple  is  juicy,  of  good  flavor,  and  especially 
desirable  for  cooking  purposes.  It  will  keep  in  cellar  storage 
until  January  or  February  and  sometimes  longer.  In  cold 
storage  it  can  be  kept  until  March. 

38.  Cranberry.- — The  Cranberry  is  a  fall  or  early- winter 
variety  that  is  well  known  in  parts  of  New  York  and  Southern 
Canada.  The  tree  is  large,  vigorous,  hardy,  and,  as  a  rule, 
productive.  The  fruit  is  large  in  size  and  roundish  oblate  in 
form.  The  skin  is  smooth  and  glossy;  in  color  it  is  a  clear 
yellow,  overlaid,  in  the  case  of  well-colored  specimens,  with 
blushes,  splashes,  and  stripes  of  scarlet.  Fig.  16  illustrates  a 
Cranberry  apple  that  was  grown  in  Ontario.  The  flesh  is  white 
or  sometimes  slightly  yellowish,  firm^  juicy,  and  of  fair  to 
good  quality.  The  fruit  is  more  desirable  for  cooking  than  for 
dessert.  The  season  varies  according  to  the  locality  where 
the  fruit  is  grown.      In  Ontario  and  Northern  New  York  the 


34  VARIETIES  OF  APPLES  §  3 

apples  will  keep  until  midwinter;  in  Southern  New  York  they 
will  last  onh^  until  about  the  first  part  of  December. 

39.  Esopus. — The  Esopus,  or  Esopus  Spitzenburg,  com- 
monly known  simply  as  the  Spitzenburg,  is  an  apple  of  the  Bald- 
win type,  but  is  of  better  quality  and  more  highly  prized  as  a 
fancy  dessert  fruit  than  the  latter.  It  is  also  a  good-qual- 
ity cooking  apple.  The  variety  is  grown  commercially  to  a 
limited  extent  in  New  York  and  other  of  the  Eastern  States, 
but  its  importance  as  a  commercial  apple  is  greatest  in  the 
northwestern  fruit-growing  section  of  the  United  States. 

The  tree  of  the  Spitzenburg  is  rather  a  slow  grower  and  gen- 
erally rated  as  a  moderate  cropper.  The  fniit  ranges  from 
medium  to  large  in  size;  the  form  is  rather  broad  and  flat  at 
the  base,  varying  from  oblong  to  roundish  ovate  or  roundish 
conic.  The  skin  is  tough  and  often  waxy,  and  is  roughened 
by  russet  dots.  The  under  color  is  yellow  and  is  overlaid  with 
bright  red  inconspicuously  striped  with  a  darker  red.  In  well- 
colored  specimens  the  red  assumes  a  purplish  tint  and  the  sur- 
face is  marked  with  pale  yellow  and  russet  dots.  In  Fig.  17 
a  fancy  Washington-grown  Spitzenburg  apple  is  shown  at  the 
top  of  the  page.  The  flesh  of  the  Spitzenburg  is  yellowish  in 
color,  crisp,  and  tender  in  texture,  and  of  very  good  to  best 
quality.  The  season  extends  from  November  to  February 
or  March  in  ordinary  storage  and  to  May  or  June  in  cold  storage. 

The  advantages  of  the  Spitzenburg  are  high  color,  good 
quality,  and  uniformity  of  shape.  When  packed  in  attractive 
packages  the  apples  bring  a  fancy  price  on  the  market.  The 
disadvantages  of  the  variety  are  that  the  tree  is  a  slow  grower 
and  is  subject  to  canker,  and  that  the  fruit  is  subject  to  apple 
scab.  These  troubles  can  largely  be  controlled,  however,  by 
careful  spraying,  pruning,  cultivating,  and  fertilizing. 

40.  Arkansas  Black. — The  Arkansas  Black,  a  seedling 
of  the  Winesap,  is  a  beautiful  apple,  is  a  good  keeper,  and 
brings  good  prices  on  the  market,  but  it  has  the  disadvantage  of 
being  rather  non-productive.  The  tree  is  only  moderately 
vigorous.  The  fruit  is  medium  in  size,  and  nearly  round  in 
form.     The  skin  is  smooth  and  waxy,  and  in  color  is  yellow 


Fig.  17 


§  3    24909 


Fig.  18 


§  3     24909 


§  3  VARIETIES  OF  APPLES  35 

overlaid  with  a  bright  red  that  on  the  side  exposed  to  the  sun 
becomes  a  purpHsh  red.  In  Fig.  17  an  Arkansas  Black  apple 
is  shown  at  the  bottom  of  the  page;  this  apple  was  grown  in 
Washington.  The  flesh  of  the  Arkansas  Black  is  yellowish, 
firm,  crisp,  and  fairly  juicy;  in  quality  it  is  good  to  very  good. 
In  cold  storage  the  fruit  will  keep  until  April  or  May.  On 
account  of  its  non-productivity  the  variety  is  not  recommended 
for  extensive  planting. 

41.  Westfield. — The  Westfield,  or  Westfield  Seek-No- 
Furihsr,  commonly  known  simply  as  the  Seek,  is  an  old 
favorite  dessert  apple.  In  some  sections  it  has  proved  to  be 
a  reliable  cropper,  but  in  other  sections  it  has  not  been  very 
productive.  The  tree  is  mediimi  to  large  in  size,  spreading, 
and  moderately  vigorous  to  vigorous.  The  fruit  is  usually 
about  medium  in  size  and  roundish  conical  in  form.  The  skin 
is  tough  and  smooth;  in  color  it  is  rather  a  deep  yellow  tinged 
with  green,  shaded  and  splashed  with  dull  red,  and  striped 
with  deep  carmine.  The  flesh  is  slightly  tinged  with  yellow; 
it  is  firm,  crisp,  aromatic,  and  of  good  to  best  quality.  The 
season  of  this  variety  in  ordinary  storage  is  late  fall  and  early 
winter,  but  when  properly  handled  it  may  be  held  in  cold 
storage  about  as  late  as  the  Baldwin. 

42.  Jonatlian. — The  Jonathan  is  a  variety  produced  from 
a  seedling  of  the  Esopus  Spitzenburg.  However,  it  is  more 
hardy,  productive,  and  shows  more  health  and  vigor,  and  is 
adapted  to  a  wider  range  of  territory  than  the  Spitzenburg, 
but  the  fruit  is  smaller  and  is  somewhat  more  deficient  in  keep- 
ing quality.  The  Jonathan  does  fairly  well  in  New  York 
and  Northern  Pennsylvania,  but  it  seems  better  adapted  to  the 
apple-growing  regions  of  Southern  Pennsylvania,  Maryland, 
and  the  Central  and  Western  States,  where  it  is  of  considerable 
commercial  importance. 

The  tree  is  medium  in  size,  is  a  fairly  reliable  cropper  and 
comes  into  bearing  rather  early.  The  fruit  ranges  from  small 
to- medium  in  size;  it  is  from  roundish  conic  to  roundish  ovate 
in  form.  The  cavity  is  acute  to  acuminate,  deep  and  wide, 
and  is  sometimes  slightly  furrowed.     The  basin  is  deep,  abrupt, 

248—10 


36  VARIETIES  OF  APPLES  §  3 

and  varies  from  wide  to  moderately  narrow.  The  skin  is  thin, 
tough,  and  smooth;  the  under  color  is  yellowish  overlaid  with 
a  lively  red  that  is  indistinctly  striped  with  carmine.  Often 
a  splash  of  yellow  is  seen  near  the  cavity  where  a  twig  or  a  leaf 
has  shaded  the  fruit.  This  condition  can  be  seen  in  Fig.  18, 
which  shows  a  Jonathan  apple  at  the  top  of  the  page;  this 
apple  was  grown  in  Pennsylvania.  The  flesh  of  the  Jonathan 
is  yellowish  or  whitish,  often  marked  with  red.  The  apples  are 
juicy  and  spicy,  and  the  quality  is  very  good  to  best.  The  season 
of  the  Jonathan  is  from  October  to  some  time  in  January  if  kept 
in  ordinary  storage,  and  to  February  or  March  if  kept  in  cold 
storage.     The  fruit  is  highly  desirable  for  the  Christmas  trade. 

43.  Delicious. — The  Delicious  is  a  rather  new  variety 
of  apple  that  is  very  promising  for  commercial  planting,  espe- 
cially  in   the   fruit-growing   regions   of   the   Northwest.     The 


Fig.  19 


tree  is  a  strong  grower  and  produces  a  large  quantity  of  pollen; 
the  latter  quality  makes  the  Delicious  useful  for  planting  with 


Fig.  20 


§  3     24909 


§  3  VARIETIES  OF  APPLES  37 

varieties  that  are  deficient  in  the  quantity  of  pollen  produced. 
The  fruit  is  large  to  very  large  and  oblong  conic  in  shape. 
The  skin  is  thin  and  smooth,  almost  polished;  in  color  it  is  a 
pale  yellow  overlaid  with  splashes  and  stripes  of  different 
shades  of  red.  The  prevailing  color  effect  is  a  pleasing  red. 
In  Fig.  18  a  Delicious  apple  is  shown  at  the  bottom  of  the 
page.  A  characteristic  of  the  fruit  is  five  points  that  project 
from  the  basin,  as  shown  in  Fig.  19.  The  flesh  of  the  Delicious 
is  a  pale  yellow,  tender,  and  moderately  juicy.  The  quality  is 
of  the  best,  especially  for  dessert.  , 

44.  Rliode  Island  Greening. — The  Rhode  Island  Green- 
ing, commonly  known  simply  as  the  Greening,  is  the  best  known 
green  apple  in  America.  It  is  an  important  commercial  variety 
in  New  England,  New  York,  Northern  Pennsylvania,  Southern 
Canada,  and  parts  of  Ohio  and  Michigan.  In  fact,  it  is  about 
as  well  known  and  in  as  great  demand  on  the  market  as  the 
Baldwin. 

The  tree,  when  properly  managed,  is  a  reliable  cropper, 
yielding  fruit  annually.  It  is  large  in  size,  spreading  in  habit, 
and  has  dense  foliage.  The  fruit  is  above  medium  to  large  in 
size;  it  is  grass  green  in  color  in  autumn,  later  developing  a 
slightly  yellowish  tinge.  The  apples  are  never  striped,  but 
occasionally  they  develop  a  rather  bright  cheek.  In  form  they 
are  roundish  oblate.  The  skin  is  rather  thick,  tough,  and 
smooth,  and  is  covered  with  grayish  white  or  russet  dots  that 
are  more  numerous  toward  the  basin  than  elsewhere.  In 
Fig.  20  a  Rhode  Island  Greening  apple  is  shown  at  the  top  of 
the  page.  The  flesh  of  the  Rhode  Island  Greening  is  yellowish, 
firm,  fine  grained,  and  juicy;  in  quality  it  is  very  good.  The 
Greening  is  highly  prized  for  cooking,  and  by  many  is  thought 
to  be  an  excellent  dessert  fruit  notwithstanding  the  fact  that 
it  has  a  rather  peculiar  flavor.  The  Greening  is  a  good  shipper, 
is  well  known  to  consumers,  and,  where  the  location  is  favor- 
able, is  a  profitable  variety  to  grow.  Its  season  is  about  the 
same  as  that  of  the  Baldwin. 

45.  Northwestern, — The  Northwestern,  or  Northwestern 
Greening,  is   similar   in   some   respects   to   the   Rhode   Island 


38  VARIETIES  OF  APPLES  §  3 

Greening.  The  Northwestern,  however,  is  hardier  than  the 
Rhode  Island  Greening,  and  for  this  reason  has  been  planted 
in  districts  where  the  climate  is  too  severe  for  the  latter.  The 
tree  is  hardy  and  vigorous,  and,  although  it  is  likely  to  come 
into  bearing  late,  is  a  good  cropper,  yielding  fruit,  as  a  rule, 
biennially.  The  fruit  is  large  to  very  large  in  size,  generally 
roundish  in  form,  and  greenish  or  yellowish  in  color.  The 
dots  vary  from  small  to  large  and  are  conspicuous.  In  Fig.  20 
a  Northwestern  apple  is  shown  at  the  bottom  of  the  page; 
this  ■  apple  was  grown  in  Iowa.  In  quality  the  fruit  of  this 
variety  is  inferior  to  that  of  Ihe  Rhode  Island  Greening, 
ranking  only  fair  for  both  cooking  and  dessert.  The  variety 
is  best  known  in  Wisconsin,  Iowa,  and  Minnesota,  where  it  is 
grown  commercially  to  some  extent.  The  fruit  will  keep  fairly 
well  in  cold  storage  until  April  or  May. 

46.  Green  Newtown. — The  Green  Newtown  is  very  simi- 
lar to  the  variety  known  as  the  Yellow  Ne^vtown,  which  is 
described  later;  in  fact,  it  is  thought  by  some  horticulturists 
that  one  is  a  strain  of  the  other,  and  it  has  not  been  determined 
which  was  the  parent  and  which  was  the  seedling.  Green 
Newtown  trees  are  rather  slow  of  growth,  attain  fair  size,  and 
under  favorable  conditions  come  into  bearing  young;  they  are 
good  yielders.  The  tree  is  slightly  drooping  in  habit.  The 
fruit  ranges  from  moderate  to  very  large  in  size;  it  is  usually 
roundish  oblate  in  form;  the  skin  is  rather  tough  and  may  either 
be  smooth  or  slightly  roughened.  The  color  is  generally  grass 
green  when  the  fruit  is  picked,  but  the  apples  are  likely  to 
become  yellowish  on  standing.  The  flesh  is  either  yellov/ish 
or  tinged  with  green  according  to  the  color  of  the  skin,  and 
the  quality  is  of  the  best.  The  apples  are  highly  prized  both  for 
cooking  and  for  dessert.  The  season  may  extend  anywhere 
from  February  to  April,  or  May,  depending  on  where  the  fruit 
was  grown  and  the  method  of  storage. 

The  Green  Ne^vtown  variety  is  markedly  influenced  by 
environment,  and  the  locations  where  it  can  be  grown  success- 
fully are  limited.  The  lower  part  of  the  Hudson  River  Valley 
in  New  York,  the  Piedmont  and  mountainous  regions  of  Virginia 


§  3  VARIETIES  OF  APPLES  39 

and  North  Carolina,  and  certain  localities  in  California,  Oregon, 
and  Washington  are  favorable  for  the  production  of  the  variety. 

47.  Yellow  Newtown. — The  Yellow  Newtown  variety 
differs  in  but  a  few  particulars  from  the  Green  Newtown.  The 
tree  of  the  former  is  slightly  more  vigorous  and  in  habit  it  is 
more  erect  than  that  of  the  latter.  The  fruit  is  like  that  of 
the  Green  Ne^vtown,  except  in  color  of  the  skin  and  in  color 
and  flavor  of  the  flesh.  At  harvest  time  the  apples  are  yellow, 
and  often  there  is  a  pink  blush  spread  over  a  part  of  the  surface. 
The  flesh  is  yellowish  and  the  flavor  is  mild  and  aromatic. 
As  a  commercial  variety,  the  Yellow  Newtown  is  highly  profit- 
able. Like  the  Green  Newtown,  it  is  susceptible  to  environ- 
mental conditions  and  grov/s  well  only  in  certain  localities.  Its 
area  of  production  is  about  the  same  as  that  of  the  Green 
Newtown. 

In  Albemarle  County,  Virginia,  the  Yellow  Newtown  grows 
exceedingly  well,  and  formerly  it  was  thought  that  the  apples 
produced  in  this  region  were  a  distinct  variety,  and  they 
were  known  as  Albemarle  Pippins;  this  term  is  still  frequently 
applied  to  fruit  of  the  Yellow  Newtown  variety.  Hundreds 
of  barreh  of  so-called  Albemarle  Pippins  are  exported  to 
England  annually.  The  beginning  of  the  demand  for  this 
fruit  can  be  traced  to  a  peculiar  incident.  During  the  first 
year  of  the  reign  of  Queen  Victoria  of  England,  Andrew  Steven- 
son, a  resident  of  Albemarle  County,  was  Minister  to  the  Court 
of  St.  James,  and  from  among  the  Albemarle  Pippins  he  had 
shipped  to  England  for  his  Ovvn  use,  he  presented  several 
barrels  to  Queen  Victoria.  She  was  much  pleased  with  the  fruit 
and  out  of  courtesy  to  him  removed  from  Albemarle  Pippins 
the  tax  levied  on  fruit.  From  that  time  to  the  present  the 
demand  for  Albemarle  Pippins  has  grown  steadily  in  English 
markets. 

48.  King  David. — The  King  David  is  a  new  variety  of 
considerable  promise.  It  is  thought  to  be  a  cross  between 
the  Jonathan  and  the  Arkansas  Black.  The  tree  greatly 
resembles  that  of  the  Jonathan  but  is  said  to  be  more  vigorous 
and  hardy.     The  fruit  also  resembles  that  of  the  Jonathan  but 


40  VARIETIES  OF  APPLES  §  3 

is  larger  and  of  a  deeper  red  color.  In  flavor,  the  fruit  is  very 
rich  and  spicy.  The  season  of  the  King  David  is  said  to  be  a 
little  longer  than  that  of  the  Jonathan.  This  is  a  good  variety 
for  planting  where  fruit  is  wanted  for  fancy  trade  or  for  export. 

49.  Ben  Davis. — The  Ben  Davis  is  probably  grown  over 
a  wider  area  than  any  other  variety.  In  fact,  it  is  thought 
that  more  Ben  Davis  trees  are  grown  than  those  of  any  other 
apple.  The  section  best  suited  to  the  production  of  this  variety 
is  Virginia,  Kentucky,  Tennessee,  Missouri,  Illinois,  and  Arkan- 
sas ;  however,  it  has  been  found  to  succeed  fairly  well  wherever  it 
has  been  planted,  and  many  Ben  Davis  orchards  are  found  in 
New  England,  New  York,  Pennsylvania,  and  parts  of  Canada. 

The  tree  of  the  Ben  Davis  is  medium  in  size  a,nd  is  rather  a 
rank  grower  when  young;  it  has  coarse,  strong  wood  that  will 
stand  under  heavy  crops.  The  form  tends  to  be  upright  and 
roundish,  becoming  rather  spreading  in  old  trees.  The  fruit 
is  usually  above  medium  to  large  in  size  and  roundish  conic  to 
somewhat  oblong  in  form.  The  skin  is  tough,  waxy,  bright, 
sm^ooth,  and  glossy.  The  color  is  clear  yellow  or  greenish, 
mottled  and  washed  with  bright  red,  and  striped  and  splashed 
with  dark  carmine,  which  gives  the  prevailing  effect  of  bright 
deep  red  or  red  striped.  In  Fig.  21  a  Ben  Davis  apple  is  shown 
at  the  top  of  the  page;  this  apple  was  grown  in  Virginia.  The 
flesh  of  the  Ben  Davis  is  whitish,  slightly  tinged  with  yellow, 
firm,  and  moderately  coarse,  tending  to  be  slightly  tough. 
The  quality,  as  rated  by  horticulturists,  is  good,  but  to  the  lay- 
man it  is  only  fair  or  even  poor. 

The  principal  advantage  of  the  Ben  Davis  is  the  heavy  crop 
it  bears.  When  other  varieties  are  on  the  market  it  sells 
for  a  low  price,  but  often  late  in  the  season  dealers  get  a  good 
price  for  the  fruit.  From  the  standpoint  of  the  apple  market  it  is 
doubtful  whether  the  planting  of  Ben  Davis  should  be  increased. 
The  season  extends  as  late  as  June  or  July  if  the  fruit  is  kept 
in  cold  storage. 

50.  Gano.^ — The  Gano  is  an  apple  of  the  Ben  Davis  type, 
but  it  is  somewhat  superior  to  the  latter  in  quality.  It  is 
thought  to  be  a  better  apple  for  northern  regions  like  New 


Pig.  21 


§  3     24909 


§  3  VARIETIES  OF  APPLES  41 

York  and  Northern  Pennsylvania  than  the  Ben  Davis.  The 
tree  is  usually  vigorous  and  of  the  same  upright  spreading 
habit  as  the  Ben  Davis.  The  fruit  is  medium  in  size  and 
roundish  conic  in  form.  Often  the  cavity  is  slightly  furrowed. 
The  skin  is  smooth  and  waxy,  and  is  light  yellow  in  color, 
overlaid  with  light  pinkish  or  purplish  red  obscurely  striped. 
Often  the  red  is  almost  a  solid  color.  The  general  color  effect 
is  a  fine  clear  red.  In  Fig.  21  a  Gano  apple  is  shown  at  the 
bottom  of  the  page;  this  apple  was  grown  in  Pennsylvania. 
The  flesh  of  the  Gano  is  whitish,  slightly  tinged  with  yellow, 
firm,  and  coarse  in  texture.  The  quality  is,  perhaps,  a  little 
better  than  that  of  the  Ben  Davis.  The  season  of  the  Gano  is 
about  the  same  as  that  of  the  Ben  Davis. 

51.  Winesap. — The  Winesap  apple  is  one  of  the  oldest 
grown  in  America.  It  is  what  may  be  termed  a  middle-latitude 
apple  and  is  well  known  in  Virginia,  Maryland,  West  Virginia, 
Arkansas,  Missouri,  and  some  of  the  Western  States.  The 
tree  is  of  medium  size,  rather  vigorous,  comes  into  bearing  early, 
and  is  usually  an  annual  cropper.  The  fruit  tends  to  be  small, 
although  when  grown  under  favorable  conditions  it  attains  a 
good  size.  The  form  of  the  Winesap  is  usually  roundish,  slightly 
conical,  and  truncate  at  the  base.  The  skin  is  medium  thick, 
tough,  smooth,  and  glossy.  The  ground  color  is  yellow,  or 
greenish,  overlaid  with  deep  red  indistinctly  striped  and  blotched 
with  a  dark  purplish  red.  The  prevailing  effect  is  a  bright  deep 
red.  In  Fig.  22  a  Winesap  apple  is  shown  at  the  top  of  the 
page;  this  apple  was  grown  near  Selah,  Washington.  The  flesh 
of  the  Winesap  is  yellowish,  and  sometimes  veins  of  red  can  be 

.seen  running  through  it.  The  apples  are  juicy  and  crisp,  and 
the  quality  is  good  to  very  good.  The  ordinary  limit  in  cold 
storage  is  April. 

52.  Black  Ben  Davis. — The  Black  Ben  Davis  is  an 
apple  of  the  Ben  Davis  type,  but  is  resembles  the  Gano  more 
than  the  Ben  Davis.  The  Black  Ben,  as  it  is  often  called,  is 
grown  to  a  considerable  extent  in  the  Central  and  Western 
States.  The  tree,  when  young,  is  upright,  but  on  reaching 
maturity  it  becomes  rather  spreading  and  dense.     The  fruit 


42  VARIETIES  OF  APPLES  §  3 

is  medium  to  large  in  size,  and  roundish  ovate  to  roundish  conic 
in  form.  The  skin  is  thin,  tough,  smooth,  and  glossy.  The 
under  color  is  a  clear  pale  yellow,  but  it  is,  on  well-matured 
specimens,  covered  with  a  brilliant  red  that  becomes  a  dark 
purple  on  the  side  exposed  to  the  sun.  The  season  lasts  until 
April  and  May  if  the  fruit  is  kept  in  cold  storage.  In  Fig.  22 
a  Black  Ben  Davis  apple  is  shown  at  the  bottom  of  the  page; 
this  apple  was  grown  in  Washington. 

53.  Rome  Beauty. — The  Rome  Beauty  is  an  old  vari- 
ety that  is  commonly  grown  in  the  latitude  of  New  Jersey  and 
Southern  Ohio;  it  is  grown  also  in  parts  of  Missouri,  and  in 
some  of  the  Pacific  Coast  States.  The  tree  is  not  particularly 
vigorous  but  attains  medium  size  and  comes  into  bearing  early. 
The  fruit  ranges  in  size  from  medium  to  very  large;  in  form  it 
is  roundish  to  roundish  conic,  sometimes  slightly  oblong. 
The  skin  is  thick,  tough,  and  smooth.  The  color  is  greenish 
or  yellowish  mottled  v/ith  bright  red  that,  on  well-colored 
specimens,  deepens  to  almost  a  solid  red  on  the  exposed  cheek. 
The  prevailing  color  is  red  mixed  with  yellow.  In  Fig.  23  a 
Rome  Beauty  apple  is  shown  at  the  top  of  the  page;  this  apple 
was  grown  in  Washington.  The  flesh  of  the  Rome  Beauty  is 
nearly  white,  with  a  slight  tinge  of  yellow  or  green;  it  is  juicy, 
crisp,  of  an  agreeable  taste,  and  of  good  quality.  The  fruit 
is  used  for  both  dessert  and  cooking  purposes.  The  season  of 
the  Rome  Beauty  extends  to  about  April  or  May,  if  the  apples 
are  kept  in  cold  storage. 

54.  Stayman  Winesap. — ^A  seedling  of  the  Winesap, 
known  as  the  Stayman  Winesap,  is  considered  by  many  to  be 
better  for  general  cultivation  than  its  parent.  The  variety 
was  originated  in  1866  from  the  seed  of  the  Winesap  by 
Dr.  J.  Stayman,  of  Leavenworth,  Kansas,  from  whom  it  derives 
its  name.  The  tree  is  fairly  vigorous  and  the  form  is  spread- 
ing and  rather  open.  The  fruit  is  from  medium  to  very  large 
in  size  and  is  roundish  conic  to  globular  in  form.  The  skin  is 
smooth,  rather  thick,  and  tough.  The  under  color  is  greenish 
or  yellowish,  often  almost  completely  covered  with  a  dull  red 
over   color  that   is   rather  indistinctly   striped  with   carmine. 


Fig.  22 


§  3     24909 


Fig.  23 


§  3     24903 


Fig.  24 


§  3     24909 


§  3  VARIETIES  OF  APPLES  43 

The  prevailing  effect  is  a  pleasing  red.  In  Fig.  23  a  Stayman 
Winesap  apple  is  shown  at  the  bottom  of  the  page;  this  apple 
was  grown  in  Washington.  The  flesh  is  yellowish  or  greenish 
in  color,  crisp,  and  juicy;  in  quality  it  is  good  to  very  good. 
The  range  for  planting  is  about  the  same  as  that  of  the  Wine- 
sap.     The  fruit  will  keep  in  storage  until  April  or  May. 

55.  Salome. — The  Salome  variety  originated  about  1852 
in  Illinois  and  has  become  rather  widely  disseminated.  The 
tree  is  vigorous,  attains  a  large  size,  and  is  a  good  cropper,  but 
tends,  to  yield  in  alternate  years.  The  fruit  is  usually  below 
medium  in  size,  and  is  roundish  oblate  and  often  elliptical  in 
form.  The  skin  is  thin,  tough,  and  smooth;  the  under  color  is 
rather  a  pale  yellow  or  green,  being  overlaid  with  carmine 
stripes  and  a  blush.  Often  the  apples  are  marked  toward  the 
cavity  with  whitish  bloom.  In  Fig.  24  a  Pennsylvania-grown 
Salome  apple  is  shown  at  the  top  of  the  page.  The  flesh  of 
the  Salome  is  yellowish,  firm,  and  moderately  fine  grained; 
it  is  of  good  to  very  good  quality.  The  season  extends  from 
November  to  March. 

56»  Wagener. — The  Wagener  is  an  apple  of  the  Northern 
Spy  type,  and  is  much  used  in  New  England,  New  York,  and 
Northern  Pennsylvania  as  a  filler  in  commercial  orchards. 
The  reason  for  this  is  that  the  tree  is  dwarfish  in  size,  and 
although  a  rather  slow  grower,  comes  into  bearing  at  an  early 
age.  The  trees  are  vigorous  when  young,  but  on  reaching 
maturity  they  become  rather  weak  and  are  short  lived.  But 
these  qualities  do  not  detract  from  their  use  as  fillers.  The 
fruit  is  medium  to  large  in  size  and  roundish  oblate  in  form. 
The  skin  is  thin,  tough,  smooth,  and  glossy.  The  color  is  pale 
yellow  covered  with  a  bright  pinkish  red,  striped  with  bright 
carmine.  The  prevailing  effect  is  a  bright,  light  red.  In  Fig.  24 
a  Wagener  apple  is  shown  at  the  bottom  of  the  page ;  this  apple 
was  grown  near  Scranton,  Pennsylvania.  The  flesh  of  the 
Wagener  is  whitish,  slightly  tinged  with  yellow,  juicy,  and 
tender.  Its  quality  is  very  good  to  best,  being  similar  to  the 
Spy  in  this  respect.  The  season  extends  from  October  to 
February  or  later.     Wageners  are  in  demand  on  the  market 


Fig.  25 


44 


§  3  VARIETIES  OF  APPLES  45 

and  command  a  good  price,  largely  on  account  of  their  color  and 
quality.     Often  they  are  sold  as  Spys  by  unscrupulous  dealers. 

57.  Arkansas. — The  Arkansas,  known  also  as  the  Mam- 
moth Black  Twig,  another  apple  of  the  Winesap  class,  is  distinct 
from  the  Arkansas  Black.  The  tree  is  rather  large  and  vigorous, 
but  is  inclined  to  be  a  shy  bearer.  The  fruit  is  from  mediiim 
to  large  in  size,  and  roundish  and  often  slightly  oblate  in  form. 
The  color  is  greenish  or  yellowish  overlaid  with  a  dull,  deep  red, 
often  obscurely  striped  with  darker  red.  Fig.  25  shows  a  well- 
colored  apple  of  the  variety.  The  flesh  of  the  Arkansas  is  yel- 
lowish, firm,  and  fairly  juicy.  The  apples  are  good  keepers, 
lasting  in  cold  storage  until  about  May.  The  variety  has  been 
extensively  planted  in  some  of  the  Southern  and  Southwestern 
States,  but  is  has  not  proved  to  be  commercially  successful, 
largely  on  account  of  being  a  poor  bearer. 

58.  Ralls. — The  Ralls,  also  known  as  the  Geniton  and 
Genet,  is  a  middle-latitude  variety  that  does  especially  well  in 
the  Missouri  apple-growing  section.  The  tree  is  a  heavy  crop- 
per in  alternate  years,  and  alternates  probably  more  distinctly 
than  most  other  varieties.  It  is  long  lived  in  the  Missouri  section 
and  does  well  not  only  on  thin  land,  but  also  on  heavy  bottom 
land.  Its  greatest  value  for  the  section  to  which  it  is  adapted 
is  its  late  blooming  habit.  Even  in  the  most  unfavorable 
areas  it  is  practically  never  killed  by  late  freezes;  thus  even  in 
low  bottoms  it  is  almost  a  sure  cropper  in  alternate  years. 
The  fruit  ripens  very  late,  and  is  generally  below  mediimi  in  size, 
although  on  young  trees  it  is  often  above  medium;  the  form  is 
roundish  oblate,  varying,  to  roundish.  The  skin  is  smooth  with 
a  yellow  or  greenish  under  color  that  is  blushed  and  mottled 
with  pinkish  red  and  indistinctly  striped  with  dull  carmine. 
This  is  overspread  with  a  light  bloom  and  broken  stripes  of 
whitish  scarf  skin,  which  gives  the  apple  a  rather  dull  appearance. 
The  flesh  is  whitish,  firm,  and  moderately  fine  grained.  The 
quality  of  the  fruit  where  grown  in  Missouri  is  very  good,  but 
when  grown  in  northern  latitudes  the  apples  ripen  so  late 
that  the  quality  is  only  medium.  In  ordinary  storage  the 
season  is  from  December  to  April. 


c 


Fig.  26 


46 


*♦+  **  *f  **  **         ***i? 


i« 


47 


Fig.  27 


48  VARIETIES  OF  APPLES  §  3 

59.  Ingram. — The  Ingram,  a  seedling  of  the  Ralls,  origi- 
nated about  1850  on  the  farm  of  Martin  Ingram,  near  Spring- 
fieid,  Missouri.  The  tree  blooms  nearly  as  late,  bears  fruit  of 
better  quality  and  much  better  color,  is  a  more  rapid  grower, 
and  has  stronger  branches  than  that  of  the  Ralls;  the  trees 
tend  to  bear  in  alternate  years,  but  not  to  such  a  marked  extent 
as  the  Ralls.  The  tree  is  adapted  to  conditions  such  as  those 
found  in  Missouri;  on  account  of  the  trees  blooming  so  late, 
the  fruit  requires  a  long  season  for  development  and  for  this 
reason  the  variety  is  not  adapted  for  culture  in  northern  lati- 
tudes. The  tree  is  vigorous,  with  moderately  stout  branches. 
The  fruit  is  below  medium  to  medium  in  size,  and  roundish 
conic  to  roundish  oblate  tending  to  be  oblique  in  form.  The 
skin  is  thick,  tough,  and  smooth.  The  color  is  a  bright  greenish 
yellow  or  pale  yellow  washed,  mottled,  and  striped  with  two 
shades  of  red.  In  regions  where  it  can  reach  its  best  develop- 
ment it  is  almost  entirely  overspread  with  a  rather  dark  red. 
An  Ingram  apple  that  was  grown  in  Missouri  is  shown  in 
Fig.  26.  The  flesh  of  the  Ingram  is  tinged  with  yellow;  it  is 
firm  and  hard  but  becomes  crisp  and  tender  late  in  the  season. 
The  quality  is  very  good.  In  Missouri,  the  season  of  the 
Ingram  is  from  December  to  June.  This  is  one  of  the  best  of 
cold-storage  apples,  specimens  having  been  kept  in  fairly  good 
condition  for  2  years.  It  is  probably  the  safest  variety  that  can 
be  planted  in  the  Ozark  section,  and  if  the  tree  is  kept  pruned 
rather  heavily  the  fruit  will  attain  a  good  market  size. 

60.  Roxbury. — The  Roxbury  is  a  russet  apple  that  is 
grown  commercially  in  some  sections  where  the  Baldwin, 
Spy,  and  Greening  are  grown.  The  tree  is  medium  to  large 
in  size  and  fairly  vigorous.  When  grown  on  rich  soil  in  favor- 
able locations  it  is  generally  a  reliable  cropper.  As  a  rule, 
this  variety  is  a  biennial  bearer.  The  fruit  is  of  about  medium 
size  and  oblate  or  oblate  conic  in  form.  The  skin  is  some- 
times smooth  but  usually  is  roughened  with  a  greenish  to 
yellowish-brown  russet.  Dots  of  russet  or  gray  are  conspicuous 
on  the  surface.  A  Roxbury  of  good  size  and  form  is  shown 
in  Fig.  27.     The  flesh  of  the  Roxbury  is  yellowish  or  greenish 


49 


Fig.  28 


50  VARIETIES  OF  APPLES  §3 

and  the  quality  is  good  to  very  good.  A  particular  advantage 
of  the  variety  is  that  it  is  a  good  keeper.  The  season  of  the 
fruit,  when  it  is  kept  in  cold  storage,  extends  from  December 
to  as  late  as  July. 

61.  Golden  Russet. — The  Golden  Russet  variety  is 
grown  commercially  in  some  sections  of  the  Eastern  States. 
It  is  an  excellent  storage  variety,  sells  well  in  the  general  mar- 
ket, and  is  particularly  in  demand  for  shipment  to  north- 
western and  southern  markets.  The  tree  is  from  medium  to 
large  in  size,  and  from  moderately  vigorous  to  vigorous.  The 
fruit  varies  from  below  to  above  mediiim  in  size.  The  skin  is 
thick  and  moderately  tender;  it  is  usually  almost  entirely  cov- 
ered with  a  greenish  or  yellowish  russet,  which,  in  highly  col- 
ored specimens,  becomes  a  golden  russet  with  a  bronze  cheek. 
The  flesh  is  yellowish,  rather  fine  grained,  tender,  juicy,  and 
very  good.  The  Golden  Russet  is  valuable  as  a  cider  apple. 
The  season  is  from  December  to  April  or  later. 

62.  Pewauliee. — The  Pewaukee  is  a  northern-grown 
variety  that  was  originated  by  crossing  the  Oldenburg  and 
the  Northern  Spy.  The  tree  is  vigorous,  medium  to  large 
in  size,  and  a  strong  grower.  It  bears  at  a  fairly  early  age 
and  with  good  care  is  a  reliable  cropper;  it  usually  bears  bien- 
nially, but  sometimes  annually.  The  fruit  is  from  medium 
to  large  in  size,  and  is  roundish  oblate  to  roundish  ovate  in 
form.  The  cavity  is  often  very  small  and  shallow.  The  skin 
is  smooth  and  rather  tough,  and  is  of  a  grass  green  or  yellow- 
ish color  that  is  mottled  with  orange  red  and  striped  and  splashed 
with  carmine.  The  prevailing  effect  is  a  mixture  of  red  and 
yellow,  or  red  and  green.  Fig.  28  illustrates  a  Pewaukee  apple 
that  was  grown  in  New  York  State.  The  flesh  of  the  Pewaukee 
is  whitish,  tender,  and  rather  coarse.  The  quality  is  fair  to 
good  either  for  cooking  or  dessert.  The  season  varies  some- 
what. Often  the  fruit  may  be  kept  in  cold  storage  until  April; 
again  it  may  go  down  in  January  or  Februar^^  For  commer- 
cial planting,  the  Pewaukee  is  not  particularly  desirable, 
largely  because  it  is  not  well  known  by  consumers  and  there- 
fore is  not  in  much  demand  on  the  market. 


Fig.  29 


§  3     24909 


§  3  VARIETIES  OF  APPLES  51 

63.  Grimes. — The  Grimes,  or  Grimes  Golden,  apple  is 
adapted  to  middle  latitudes  and  is  one  of  the  best  quality  apples 
produced.  In  West  Virginia,  Ohio,  and  Indiana  many  com- 
mercial orchards  of  this  variet_v  are  proving  very  profitable. 
The  tree  is  moderately  vigorous,  the  branches  are  short,  curved, 
and  crooked.  It  bears  biennially,  although  in  some  cases 
annually,  and  is  a  good  cropper.  The  fruit  is  medium  to  large 
in  size  and  roundish  oblong,  often  truncate  in  form.  The  skin 
is  tough  and  slightly  roughened.  The  color  is  deep  yellow 
with  scattering  pale  yellow  or  russet  dots.  In  Fig.  29  a  Grimes 
Golden  apple  is  shown  at  the  top  of  the  page;  this  apple  was 
grown  in  Southern  Ohio.  The  flesh  of  the  Grimes  is  yellow, 
firm,  tender,  and  of  very  good  to  best  quality.  The  fruit 
loses  some  of  its  quality  and  is  likely  to  scald  in  storage.  How- 
ever, the  apples  can  be  kept  until  January  or  February  in  cold 
storage.  The  Grimes  is  recommended  for  commercial  plant- 
ing in  the  districts  mentioned  and  is  worthy  of  trial  in  home 
orchards  in  these  and  other  similar  sections. 

64.  White  Pearmain. — The  White  Pearmain,  or  White 
Winter  Pearmain,  as  it  is  sometimes  called,  is  a  favorite  dessert 
apple  in  some  parts  of  the  Central  and  the  Western  States. 
The  variety  is  not  grown  extensively  in  commercial  orchards, 
but  is  much  prized  for  home  orchards.  The  tree  is  vigorous 
and  wide  spreading.  In  size  the  fruit  is  from  medium  to  large, 
and  in  form  is  roundish  ovate  to  oblong  conic.  The  skin  is 
tough  and  smooth.  The  color  is  a  pale  yellow  or  greenish 
shaded  with  brownish  red.  In  Fig.  29  a  White  Pearmain 
apple  is  shown  at  the  bottom  of  the  page.  The  flesh  is  yellow- 
ish, tender,  and  juicy;  in  quality  it  is  Yerj  good  to  best.  The 
White  Pearmain  can  be  kept  in  storage  until  about  March. 

65.  Huntsnaan. — The  Huntsman  variety,  commonly 
known  among  growers  as  the  Huntsman  Favorite,  is  grown  to  a 
considerable  extent  in  Missouri  and  Kansas.  The  Huntsman 
is  a  dessert  apple  of  high  quality,  but  it  is  more  often  found  in 
home  orchards  than  in  commercial  plantings.  The  tree  is 
vigorous,  and  is  a  late  but  regular  bearer  and  generally  prolific. 
The  fruit  is  of  mediimi  to  large  size  and  is  roundish  oblate 

248—11 


Ftg.  30 


53 


Fig.  31 


i 


Fig.  32 


§  3  VARIETIES  OF  APPLES  55 

and  slightly  conic  in  form.  The  skin  is  thick  but  tender,  and 
the  color  is  yellow,  slightly  greenish,  often  having  a  red  blush. 
Fig.  30  shows  a  Huntsman  apple  that  was  grown  in  Missouri. 
The  flesh  is  yellowish,  rather  firm,  and  juicy;  in  quality  it  is 
good  to  very  good,  especially  for  dessert.  The  apples  can  be 
kept  in  cold  storage  until  April. 

66.  Willow. — The  Willow,  or  Willow  Twig,  variety  is 
grown  largely  in  the  Mississippi  Valley.  The  tree  is  large, 
vigorous,  and  of  upright  habit.  The  fruit  is  large  to  medium 
in  size,  and  roundish  inclined  to  conic  in  form;  sometimes  it  is 
roundish  oblate.  The  skin  is  smooth  and  rather  glossy.  The 
color  is  a  yellowish  green,  blushed  and  miottled  with  red,  and 
striped  and  splashed  irregularly  with  a  deeper  red.  •  The 
general  effect  is  a  dull  red.  Fig.  31  shows  a  Willow  apple 
that  was  grown  in  Missouri.'  The  flesh  of  the  Willow  is  either 
yellowish  or  greenish,  firm,  coarse,  and  juicy;  the  quality  is 
only  fair  to  good.  The  season  extends  to  May  if  the  fruit  is 
kept  in  cold  storage.  The  apple  is  susceptible  to  scab,  blight, 
and  bitter  rot,  and  for  this  reason  fruit  growers  are  not  plant- 
ing it  as  extensively  as  in  the  past. 

67.  Mann. — The  Mann  variety  is  grown  on  a  small  scale 
commercially  in  New  York,  the  New  England  States,  and 
Ontario.  The  tree  is  medium,  to  large,  vigorous,  hardy,  a 
reliable  cropper,  and  a  good  yielder.  The  fruit  is  mediimi  to 
large  in  size,  and  roundish  inclined  to  oblate  in  form.  The 
skin  is  thick  and  tough.  The  color  is  a  deep  green  that  becomes 
yellow  as  the-  season  advances.  Fig.  32  shows  a  Mann  apple 
that  was  grown  in  Ontario,  Canada.  The  flesh  of  the  Mann  is 
yellowish  and  coarse;  at  first  it  is  hard  and  firm,  but  becomes 
tender  on  standing.  The  quality  is  fair  to  good,  being  inferior 
to  that  of  the  Rhode  Island  Greening.  The  fruit  can  be  kept 
until  May  in  cold  storage. 

68.  Stark. — The  Stark  is  a  late  winter  apple  that  is  widely 
disseminated  throughout  the  United  States  and  Canada.  The 
tree  is  vigorous,  and  ranges  in  size  from  large  to  moderately 
large.  It  is  a  reliable  cropper  and  very  productive.  The 
fruit  is  large  to  medium  in  size;  sometimes  it  is  very  large. 


Fig.  33 


56 


§  3  VARIETIES  OF  APPLES  57 

In  form  it  is  roundish,  inclined  to  conic,  varying  to  slightly 
oblate  or  roundish  ovate.  The  skin  is  either  smooth  or  slightly 
roughened  with  russet  dots.  In  the  fall  the  color  is  a  pale 
green;  as  winter  advances  the  color  becomes  a  yellow  more  or 
less  blushed  and  mottled  and  rather  indistinctly  striped  with 
red.  The  prevailing  color  effect  is  a  dull  green  or  yellow  mixed 
with  red.  Fig.  33  illustrates  a  Stark  apple  that  was  grown  in 
Ontario,  Canada.  The  flesh  of  the  Stark  is  yellowish  and  firm; 
in  quality  it  is  fair  to  good.  The  apples  can  often  be  kept  in 
storage  until  May;  if  held  until  late  in  the  year  they  are  likely 
to  bring  good  prices. 


APPLE  CULTURE 

(PART  1) 


ESTABLISHMENT    OF  AN  APPLE   ORCHARD 


GENERAL    CONSIDERATIONS 

1.  Size  of  Or  chard. — One  of  the  first  questions  that  comes 
up  in  planning  an  apple  orchard  is  that  of  the  size  of  the  orchard. 
Before  this  question  can  be  settled  in  a  satisfactory  manner  it  is 
advisable  to  know  something  of  the  factors  that  will  determine 
how  many  acres  of  orchard  one  man  can  care  for,  doing  the  work 
in  accordance  with  approved  methods.  It  is  obvious  that  in 
practically  all  cases  it  will  be  desired  to  make  the  planting  as 
large  as  feasible  in  order  that  the  incom.e  may  be  correspondingly 
large.  At  the  same  time  it  is  evident  that  there  is  a  limit  to 
the  size  of  orchard  that  one  man  can  work,  and  if  it  is  intended 
that  the  owner  will  merely  supervise  there  is  also  a  limit  to  the 
acreage  he  can  oversee.  Som.e  authorities  on  orcharding  speak 
of  the  size  of  orchard  a  man  can  care  for  advantageously  as  a 
unit,  and  there  has  been  considerable  discussion  as  to  what 
acreage  constitutes  an  apple-orchard  unit.  It  is  apparent  that 
the  question  is  not  one  that  can  be  answered  definitely,  because 
there  are  many  factors  that  must  be  taken  into  consideration  in 
each  case.  If  a  man  with  limited  capital  is  undertaking  to 
establish  an  orchard  and  at  the  same  time  to  raise  grain  or  vege- 
table crops  sufficient  to  make  a  living  until  the  orchard  comes 
into  bearing,  it  is  evident  that  he  will  be  obliged  to  restrict  his 
planting  of  trees  more  than  will  the  man  who  has  capital  enough 
to  carry  him  through  the  non-productive  period  of  the  orchard. 

COPYRIGHTED     BY     INTERNATIONAL    TEXTBOOK    COMPANY.        ALL     RIGHTS     RESERVED 

.      §4 


2  APPLE  CULTURE  §  4 

Under  some  conditions  a  man  may  be  able  to  put  out  a  large 
acreage  of  trees,  employing  laborers  to  do  the  necessary  work; 
under  other  conditions  labor  may  be  so  scarce  or  expensive  that 
such  a  plan  is  not  feasible.  If  good  orchard  land  is  abundant 
in  a  given  locality  one  man  can  superintend  a  much  larger 
acreage  than  would  be  possible  in  a  section  in  which  suitable 
orchard  sites  are  scarce  and  widely  separated.  Spraying  and 
harvesting  are  two  orchard  operations  that  require  the  most 
labor,  and  it  is  imperative  that  they  be  performed  at  the  right 
time.  Failure  to  give  them  attention  at  the  proper  time  may 
result  in  a  heavy  loss  to  the  grower.  This  being  the  case,  it  is 
easy  to  see  that  a  larger  force  of  men  will  be  required  to  spray 
and  harvest  in  an  orchard  planted  to  a  single  variety  or  to 
varieties  that  bloom  and  ripen  at  approximately  the  same  time 
than  in  another  of  the  same  area  in  which  varieties  that  bloom 
and  ripen  in  sequence  are  planted.  These  and  other  factors 
operate  to  make  the  question  of  what  constitute  an  apple- 
orchard  unit  so  complex  that  no  attempt  to  lay  down  certain 
definite  figures  can  be  satisfactory.  The  prospective  apple 
grower  must  investigate  carefully  the  conditions  that  prevail 
in  his  locality  and  in  his  individual  case  and  decide  for  himself 
what  size  of  unit  he  is  warranted  in  establishing. 

2.  Som.e  orchardists  undertake  to  determine  the  size  of  unit 
by  the  capacity  of  a  power  spraying  outfit,  since  this  is  one  of 
the  most  expensive  items  of  the  orchardist's  equipment.  One 
power  sprayer  should  handle  30  or  40  acres  of  orchard  in  ftill 
bearing,  except  in  cases  in  which  the  trees  have  been  allowed  to 
reach  enormous  size  and  in  sections  where  the  land  is  very  hilly. 
But  here  again  the  question  of  whether  or  not  the  orchard  is 
planted  with  varieties  that  bloom  and  ripen  in  sequence  will 
determine  to  a  large  extent  the  size  of  unit.  As  a  general  rule, 
a  larger  orchard  unit  of  summer  and  winter  apples  mixed  can 
be  handled  than  of  winter  varieties  alone,  not  only  because 
there  is  a  wider  range  of  blooming  period  under  the  former  con- 
ditions but  also  because  fewer  sprayings  are  required  for  the 
former.  In  an  orchard  made  up  of  10  to  15  acres  of  summer 
apples,  15  to  20  acres  of  fall  apples  -like  the  Jonathan  and 


§4  APPLE  CULTURE  3 

10  acres  of  very  late  bloomers  like  the  Ingram  that  are  also 
late  in  ripening,  the  time  available  for  giving  any  one  spray- 
ing of  the  orchard  is  greatly  extended,  and  as  fewer  sprayings 
of  the  summer  apples  are  necessary,  a  large  orchard  can  be 
covered  with  one  sprayer.  Furthermore,  in  such  a  case  the 
picking  would  be  prolonged  through  a  longer  season  and  there 
would  be  less  trouble  about  getting  sufficient  labor  to  harvest 
the  crop,  so  an  orchard  of  this  kind  could  be  considerably 
larger  for  the  same  equipment  than  one  made  up  of  varieties 
blooming  and  ripening  at  about  the  same  time. 

If  considerable  other  farming  is  being  done,  20  acres  would 
perhaps  be  an  average  unit  for  an  apple  orchard.  With  an 
orchard  of  this  size,  the  danger  that  the  spraying  could  not  be 
done  at  the  proper  time  because  of  other  crops  that  need  atten- 
tion would  probably  not  be  great. 

The  estimates  set  forth  here  are  based  on  the  labor  required 
to  care  for  an  apple  orchard  in  full  bearing.  Before  the 
orchard  is  in  full  bearing  a  larger  unit  probably  could  be 
managed  with  the  same  equipment. 

3.  Capital  Required.- — It  is  a  common  mistake  among 
beginners  in  apple  orcharding  to  overlook  the  fact  that  capital 
is  necessary  in  estabhshing  an  orchard.  Probably  more  orchards 
are  failures  because  of  lack  of  capital  than  lack  of  knowledge 
on  the  part  of  the  owners. 

In  estimating  the  capital  necessary  for  the  establishment  of 
an  orchard,  it  is  best  to  consider  it  independent  of  the  cost  of 
the  land,  since  the  latter  item  is  so  variable  that  no  estimate 
that  will  be  of  much  value  can  be  given.  The  beginner  in 
orcharding  should  have,  first  of  all,  money  enough  to  secure  the 
land  required  and  the  necessary  equipment.  To  this  must  be 
added  the  cost  of  caring  for  the  orchard  each  year  until  it  comes 
into  bearing,  which  may  be  estimated  at  about  $20  an  acre. 
In  some  sections  it  will  be  more  than  this,  and  in  some  sections 
and  especially  with  a  man  who  is  exceedingly  industrious  and 
a  good  manager,  it  will  be  less.  This  estimate  includes  the  cost 
of  trees  at  about  15  cents  each,  the  cost  of  breaking  the  ground, 
planting,  and  caring  for  the  trees  each  year.     In  some  sections 


4  APPLE  CULTURE  §4 

the  orchard  will  come  into  steady  bearing  at  about  6  years  of 
age,  in  others  at  8  or  9  years  of  age;  thus  the  necessary  capital 
in  addition  to  the  equipment  would  be,  for  40  acres,  $800 
a  year  for  5  years,  which  would  be  $4,000,  and  for  8  years 
would  be  $6,400.  If  the  orchard  is  located  in  a  section  where  the 
cost  of  maintenance  cannot  be  made  from  crops  grown  between 
the  trees,  the  orchardist  should  have  this  amount  of  capital  avail- 
able in  addition  to  the  cost  of  equipment,  except  where  he  does 
the  work  himself  and  can  live  and  keep  his  team  on  a  smaller 
income  than  $800  a  year.  If  the  orchard  is  in  a  section  where 
the  use  of  orchard  heaters  is  necessary,  about  $2,000  for  40  acres 
should  be  added.  The  following  summary  of  the  cost  of  equip- 
ment and  maintenance  of  an  orchard  of,  say,  40  acres  will  per- 
haps be  of  some  assistance  by  suggesting  the  approximate 
capital  required. 

Power  sprayer $  200  to      $300 

Team 300  to  400 

Harness,   wagon,  plows,   harrows, 

and  small  tools 200 

Packing  shed,  boiling  plant,  picking 

and  packing  utensils 200  to  300 

Orchard  heaters  (if  required)   ....      2,000 

Maintenance  to  eighth  year 6,400 

$9,300  to  $9,600 

This  outlay  would  in  most  cases  be  sufficient  for  a  larger  unit 
if  other  conditions  are  such  that  they  will  permit  of  the  handling 
of  a  large  one.  At  least  two  men  can  be  kept  busy  the  year 
round  on  a  30-  or  a  40-acre  unit  and  generally  an  extra  man 
and  an  extra  team  will  be  required  at  times.  The  labor 
required  for  picking  will  vary  so  much  that  it  is  impossible  to 
estimate  the  number  of  men  necessary.  Before  the  orchard 
comes  into  bearing  one  man  with  a  team  could  probably 
maintain  it  when  no  special  problems  like  irrigation,  etc.,  are 
involved. 

It  will  be  noted  that  the  estimate  given  does  not  include 
the  cost  of  land  or  irrigation,  neither  does  it  make  an  allowance 
for  any  return  that  may  be  secured  from  crops  between  the 


§4  APPLE  CULTURE  5 

rows.  As  mentioned,  these  may  often  be  made  to  yield  the 
$6,400  for  maintenance. 

In  some  cases,  as  for  example  in  sections  where  apple  grow- 
ing has  been  uniformly  profitable  or  when  the  orchardist  has 
the  confidence  of  a  money-lending  institution  or  a  person  of 
means,  it  miay  be  possible  to  borrow  a  part  or  all  of  the  capital 
required.  But  unless  some  such  favorable  condition  is  pres- 
ent it  is  not  likely  that  he  will  be  able  to  obtain  an  advance 
of  money  sufficient  to  meet  his  requirements  when  he  has 
nothing  but  orchard  land  and  equipmicnt  for  security. 

If  the  orchard  is  located  in  a  section  where  crops  between 
the  rows  can  be  grown  with  a  reasonable  certainty  of  a  profit 
before  the  trees  come  into  bearing,  a  smaller  capital  at  the 
beginning  m.ay  be  sufficient  than  if  the  growing  of  crops  between 
the  trees  is  som.ewhat  hazardous.  In  scm-e  sections  the  soil 
is  so  poor  that  the  cost  of  growing  crops  between  the  rows 
is  almost  equal  to  the  returns,  and  in  such  sections  it  may  be 
that  the  only  crops  that  can  be  at  all  profitably  grown  are 
the  small  fruits  like  strawberries,  raspberries,  etc.  These  are 
crops  that  are  somewhat  hazardous  and  in  them.selves  require 
a  considerable  outlay  of  capital,  so  where  they  are  to  be  used 
as  a  catch  crop,  miore  capital  for  the  orchard  should  be  avail- 
able than  where  some  cheaply  grown  crop  like  sweet  com  or 
potatoes  can  be  handled  profitably.  If  a  small  orchard  is  being 
put  out  and  there  is  a  good  demand  for  labor  in  the  com-mu- 
nity  a  man  m.ay  be  able  to  earn  enough  to  care  for  his  own 
orchard  by  working  for  other  people  and  in  this  case  his  labor 
becomes  equivalent  to  capital.  If  he  does  not  have  oppor- 
tunity or  inclination  to  derive  an  income  from  such  a  source 
the  only  way  that  he  could  be  justified  in  beginning  with  a 
very  small  capital  is  to  have  a  certainty  of  making  running 
expenses  for  the  orchard  from  crops  grown  between  the  rows 
or  on  other  land. 

4.  Increasing  the  Size  of  tlie  Orchard. — Doubling  or 
trebling  the  unit  for  an  apple  orchard  would  approximately 
double  or  treble  the  equipment  and  expenses,  except  that 
in  some  cases  five  men  could  probably  handle  80  acres  of 


6  APPLE  CULTURE  §4 

bearing  orchard  as  readily  as  three  men  could  handle  40  acres. 
This  would  not  always  be  true,  and  it  is  not  likely  that  further 
multiplying  the  unit  would  reduce  the  expense  per  imit,  since 
with  additional  men  working  in  different  places  without  a  fore- 
man they  would  not  likely  do  as  much  work.  The  experience 
of  practical  growers  has  been  that  doubling  and  trebling  the 
unit  does  not  generally  reduce  the  cost  per  unit. 


SELECTION  OF  SITE 
5.  Soils  Suitable  for  Apple  Orchards. — The  selection 
of  a  soil  suitable  for  commercial  apple  orcharding  is  a  matter 
that  should  receive  careful  considera,tion  from  the  grower. 
It  is  of  course  true  that  apple  trees  thrive  on  a  great  variety 
of  soils.  The  man  who  is  planning  only  a  sm^all  home  orchard 
may  be  justified  in  selecting  for  this  purpose  a  soil  that  is  not 
altogether  suitable  or  in  making  some  experimental  plantings 
with  a  view  to  determining  what  the  possibilities  of  a  certain 
soil  are  with  respect  to  apple  production.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  man  who  is  putting  out  a  commercial  orchard  will  not, 
as  a  rule,  care  to  accept  a  soil  that  is  defective  in  any  essential 
requirement  nor  will  he  find  it  advisable  to  make  extensive 
experimental  plantings. 

In  general,  authorities  agree  that  the  apple  tree  thrives  best 
on  a  deep,  well-drained,  gravelly  or  even  stony  soil.  Prof. 
F.  A.  Waugh,  an  orchardist  who  has  made  a  careful  study  of 
the  subject,  states  that  as  a  rule  a  gravelly  loam  that  is  fairly 
rich  in  plant-food  is  the  ideal  apple  soil.  Gravelly  and  stony 
soils  are  usually  well-drained  soils  and  it  seems  likely  that  it 
is  because  of  this  fact  that  apple  trees  thrive  well  on  areas 
in  which  loose  broken  stone  is  abundant;  there  are,  however, 
sections  in  which  the  apple  tree  does  extremely  well  on  sandy 
loams  and  silt  loams  and  on  almost  every  other  type  of  soil 
that  is  deep  and  well  drained. 

Depth  of  soil  is  a  particularly  important  requirement  in 
selecting  a  site  for  a  commercial  apple  orchard.  Although  a 
good,  deep  soil  is  desirable  for  almost  any  crop,  it  is  all  but 
indispensable  for  growing  apple  trees.     The  chief  objection  to 


§  4  APPLE  CULTURE  7 

a  shallow  soil  is  that  it  affords  an  inadequate  reservoir  for  the 
storage  of  moisture.  In  the  case  of  annual  plants  the  injury 
done  by  a  dry  year  is,  as  a  rule,  confined  to  the  year  in  which 
the  drought  occurs,  but  in  the  case  of  trees  the  injury  done  on 
a  dry  year  may  destroy  the  work  of  a  large  number  of  years. 
The  growth  of  the  trees  during  a  given  year  depends  so  much 
on  the  condition  in  previous  years  that  the  tree  is  not  able 
to  adapt  itself  to  withstanding  drought,  and  therefore  is  more 
seriously  injured  by  a  drought  than  annual  plants.  On  a 
mature  tree  practically  the  entire  leaf  surface  is  attained 
within  a  few  weeks  after  the  leaves  begin  to  open  and  before 
any  one  season's  drought  can  shorten  the  growth.  A  drought 
then  in  a  shallow  soil  would  cut  short  the  water  supply  for  the 
tree  with  a  full  leaf  surface,  so  that  injury  would  be  much  greater 
than  to  an  annual  plant,  because  the  latter  would  make  slower 
growth  during  a  drought  and  therefore  have  smaller  leaf  sur- 
face and  would  be  thus  adjusted  to  withstand  the  adverse 
condition.  Furthermore,  the  effect  of  severe  cold  seems  to  be 
less  in  a  deep  soil  and  the  fruit  is  almost  always  larger. 

For  the  same  reason  that  a  soil  should  be  deep,  it  should  be 
well  drained.  Tree  roots  will  go  no  deeper  than  the  depth  to 
which  the  soil  is  well  aerated.  Further,  if  the  soil  at  times  tends 
to  be  mucky  near  the  surface,  experience  indicates  that  the  tree 
is  much  shorter  lived.  In  the  Ozark  region  the  red  clay  subsoil 
makes  ideal  conditions  for  tree  roots.  The  loess  soil  found 
along  the  Mississippi,  Missouri,  and  Ohio  rivers  is  also  excel- 
lent. This  loess  soil  is  considered  by  some  to  be  the  most  nearly 
ideal  fruit  soil  there  is.  It  is  rich  in  plant-food  to  a  very  great 
depth.  It  is  made  up  of  very  small  particles  and  yet  it  drains 
well,  since  it  contains  very  small  quantities  of  clay.  Although 
apple  trees  take  away  large  quantities  of  soil  fertility,  the 
trees  will  do  exceedingly  well  on  a  soil  that  is  not  considered 
fertile  soil  from  the  standpoint  of  farm  crops.  This  is  prob- 
ably because  of  the  deep-rooting  habit  of  the  trees. 

6.     Elevation  of  Orchard  Site. — One  of  the  most  impor- 
tant factors  in  determining  the  success  of  an  apple  orchard  is 
'  the  effect  of  late  spring  frosts,  and  the  location  of  the  orchard 


8  APPLE  CULTURE  §4 

with  reference  to  the  prevention  of  damage  from  this  influence 
is  an  important  consideration.  It  will  be  much  better  to  have 
to  ship  the  apples  several  hundred  miles  from  a  section  where 
failures  on  account  of  frost  are  rare  than  to  be  in  a  section 
where  frosts  are  so  common  that  the  crop  will  be  lost  so  often 
that  no  profit  will  be  left  after  maintaining  the  orchard,  or 
where  great  expense  is  entailed  in  heating  the  orchard. 

The  elevation  of  an  orchard  site  will  determine  to  a  large 
extent  the  degree  to  which  late  spring  frosts  will  injure  the 
blossoms.  Although  it  is  true  that,  as  the  elevation  of  a  large 
area  increases  the  average  temperature  for  the  given  section 
decreases,  at  the  same  time  in  any  given  section  on  a  still, 
clear  night  the  higher  points  will  be  warmer.  This  is  because 
cold  air  is  heavier  than  warm  air  and  tends  to  settle  into  low 
places.  Thus,  in  a  broken  country  there  are  almost  always 
elevated  areas  where  there  is  less  danger  from  killing  frosts 
than  in  a  level  country.  On  the  other  hand,  in  a.  broken 
country  the  valleys  are  in  m.ore  danger  than  the  hills  because 
of  this  settling  of  the  cold  air  into  the  valleys.  Experience 
indicates,  however,  that  a  wide  valley  is  not  likely  to  be  of  any 
benefit  in  carrying  away  the  cold  air,  since  the  wind  is  likely 
to  stir  the  cold  air  up  and  prevent  settling;  in  the  narrow  val- 
leys, where  the  wind  must  blow  across  rather  than  up  and  down, 
there  will  be  settling  even  when  there  is  a  good  deal  of  wind. 
However,  on  a  very  windy  night  there  is  not  a  great  settling  of 
the  cold  air  and  the  temperature  on  the  hill  top  is  likely  to  be 
nearly  the  same  as  that  in  the  valley. 

7.  Slope  of  Land . — In  another  Section  it  has  been  shown 
that  the  slope  of  the  land  may  have  something  to  do  with  the 
susceptibility  of  an  orchard  to  injury  from  spring  frosts  by 
affecting  the  time  of  blooming.  If  the  slope  is  rather  steep 
and  the  trees  are  large,  the  trees  may  bloom  later  on  the  north 
slope  than  on  the  south  slope,  for  the  reason  that  every  tree 
will  throw  a  shadow  on  the  tree  next  north  of  it,  and  thus  the 
twigs  will  not  be  warmed  up  by  receiving  the  direct  sunlight 
on  warm  sunny  days.  However,  if  the  slope  is  not  steep  enough 
for  one  tree  to  throw  shadow  on  another,  there  will  be  little 


§  4  APPLE  CULTURE  9 

if  any  difference,  since  the  cold  soil  on  the  north  is  not  likely 
to  have  much  influence  on  the  time  of  blooming,  for  it  is  the 
temperature  of  the  twigs  and  not  that  of  the  roots  that  largely 
determines  the  time  of  blooming.  The  soil  remains  colder  on 
the  north  than  on  the  south  slope,  because  each  ray  of  sunlight 
is  spread  out  over  more  surface,  but  if  the  trees  stand  erect 
each  one  will  receive  jus't  as  direct  sunlight  on  one  slope  as 
on  the  other  provided  one  tree  does  not  cast  a  shadow  over 
another.  In  general,  a  north  slope  is  considered  better  than 
a  south  slope  for  the  reason  that  the  soil  on  the  former  is 
generally  richer  than  that  on  the  latter.  Other  considerations 
that  are  objectionable  on  a  south  slope  are  that  the  thawing 
on  warm  days  in  winter  causes  a  slipping  down  the  hill  of  the 
soil,  and  further  that  since  the  soil  is  warmer  on  the  south 
slope  the  humus  is  burned  out  faster  in  such  areas  than  on  a 
north  slope. 

8.  Exposure  of  Site. — In  choosing  a  site  the  exposure 
may  be  important  in  its  effect  on  the  temperature,  on  evapora- 
tion, on  the  number  of  windfalls,  and  on  the  breaking  of  the 
trees  by  winds. 

The  only  time  that  a  windward  exposure  will  affect  the  tem- 
perature of  an  orchard  is  when  the  orchard  is  in  a  location 
like  that  near  a  body  of  water.  When  the  temperature  of  the 
water  is  higher  or  lower  than  that  of  the  surrounding  country 
the  wind  may  bring  a  lower  or  a  higher  temperature  than  that 
of  the  orchard.  In  some  cases  protection  from  wind  might 
actually  make  the  orchard  colder  by  deflecting  the  wind  from 
over  the  soil  of  the  orchard;  and  in  the  late  spring  when  the 
water  is  colder  than  the  surrounding  country,  protection  frorn. 
wind  wotild  leave  the  orchard  warmer. 

In  sections  where  the  trees  are  frozen  up  for  a  long  time  in 
winter,  protection  from  wind  might  prevent  winter  killing  by 
lessening  the  rapid  evaporation  from  the  twigs  during  the  time 
they  are  frozen  up  and  cannot  secure  moisture  from  the  soil 
to  replace  that  evaporated.  Thus,  in  a  climate  like  that  of 
Western  Nebraska  or  the  Dakotas  a  windbreak  may  be  bene- 
ficial in  preventing  the  drying  out  of  the  twigs. 

248—12 


10  APPLE  CULTURE  §  4 

In  any  climate  where  there  is  danger  of  serious  winds  in 
summer,  a  windbreak  would  be  beneficial  in  preventing  wind- 
falls, and  the  splitting  of  trees,  but  many  orchardists  prefer 
to  have  this  windbreak  simply  an  additional  two  or  three  rows 
of  fruit  trees  than  to  have  a  windbreak  of  forest  trees  near. 

A  windbreak  made  of  forest  trees  is  sometimes  trouble- 
some in  bringing  and  harboring  insects  and  making  still-air 
pockets  that  increase  the  danger  from  spring  frosts,  and  in 
weakening  the  growth  of  the  trees  near  the  windbreak.  In 
a  region  where  high  winds  prevail,  a  windbreak  of  forest  trees 
may  be  desirable,  but  in  the  average  fruit  section  it  probably 
is  not. 

9.  Proximity  to  Markets. — ^Accessibility  to  markets  is 
an  important  factor  in  determining  the  success  of  an  orchard, 
and  in  selecting  a  location  this  should  always  have  careful 
consideration.  In  locating  for  the  summer  apple  business, 
the  distance  from  market  will  be  of  particular  importance, 
since  the  apples  may  have  to  be  shipped  in  refrigerator  cars 
and  thus  transportation  become  rather  expensive,  and  of 
course  in  supplying  any  local  market  the  distance  that  the 
fruit  must  be  hauled  wiU  be  of  great  importance,  because  haul- 
ing by  wagon  is  expensive,  and,  as  a  rule,  there  will  be  more 
or  less  injury  to  the  fruit  unless  the  roads  are  very  good.  A 
difference  of  a  few  hundred  miles  from  market,  however, 
amounts  to  less  in  determining  the  success  or  failure  of  an 
orchard  enterprise  than  adaptability  of  the  section  to  fruit 
growing.  It  would  be  much  better  to  be  1,000  miles  from_  a 
large  market  like  New  York  City  in  a  good  apple-growing 
section  than  to  be  only  500  miles  away  where  the  soil  and 
climatic  conditions  are  not  so  well  adapted  to  apple  growing. 
However,  shipping  is  one  of  the  greatest  expenses  of  the  orchard 
business  and  the  distance  the  fruit  must  be  shipped  will  of 
course  have  considerable  to  do  with  the  net  profits.  Thus 
the  market  in  cities  in  Texas  and  other  southern  points  where 
apples  are  not  grown  is  generally  better  than  the  northern 
markets,  and  a  location  in  Southern  Missouri  and  Northern 
Arkansas  or   other   good  apple-growing   sections  near   these 


§  4  APPLE  CULTURE  11 

markets  is  desirable  on  this  account.  If  it  is  intended  to  supply 
a  local  market,  the  quantity  of  apples  grown  in  the  neighbor- 
hood will  be  of  importance,  since  the  local  demand  will  be  lim- 
ited and  the  market  might  be  easily  oversupplied.  In  this  case 
a  locality  in  which  only  a  few  growers  are  in  the  business  may 
be  preferable,  but  where  the  apples  are  shipped  to  the  general 
market  it  is  particularly  desirable  to  be  in  a  section  where  a 
great  many  apples  are  grown,  since  a  large  number  of  the  best 
buyers  will  be  likely  to  come  into  the  district  and  there  will 
doubtless  be  an  opportunity  for  cooperative  marketing.  It  is 
also  likely  that  in  such  a  section  certain  supplies  for  the  orchard, 
especially  the  oil  for  heating  if  this  is  necessary,  will  be  some 
cheaper,  because  larger  quantities  will  be  used. 


SELECTION  OF  VARIETIES 

10.  The  selection  of  varieties  to  be  planted  is  one  of  the 
important  questions  the  man  who  plans  to  establish  an  orchard 
is  called  upon  to  decide.  If  the  orchard  is  largely  for  home  use 
and  it  is  not  expected  to  make  it  a  revenue  producer  to  any 
great  extent,  the  owner  is  undoubtedly  justified  in  humoring 
personal  preferences,  in  planting  many  different  varieties,  and 
in  doing  considerable  experimental  planting.  Such  a  course 
is,  however,  extremely  unfavorable  to  the  best  success  of  a 
commercial  orchard.  In  the  latter  case  it  is  particularly 
important  that  a  proper  selection  of  varieties  be  made.  The 
important  points  to  be  borne  in  mind  in  connection  with  this 
selection  are  the  growing  of  varieties  suitable  to  the  market 
available  and  the  growing  of  varieties  adapted  to  the  section 
in  which  the  orchard  is  located.  It  is  obvious  that  market 
requirements  should  be  considered  in  selecting  varieties  for  an 
orchard,  for  to  attempt  to  force  one  variety  on  a  market  that 
calls  for  and  is  willing  to  pay  a  premium  for  other  varieties 
is  to  work  at  a  distinct  disadvantage.  It  is,  of  course,  true  that 
if  a  given  variety  is  not  in  demand  in  one  market  it  is  always 
possible  for  the  grower'  to  ship  to  another  market,  but  it  is 
also  true  that  such  a  course  is  likely  to  involve  a  more  or  less 
heavy  transportation  charge.     Occasionally  there  are  special 


12  APPLE  CULTURE  §  4 

considerations  that  may  justify  the  additional  expense,  but 
as  a  general  rule  the  orchardist  will  find  it  advisable  to  cater 
to  general  markets  that  are  reasonably  close  at  hand. 

1 1 .  The  selection  of  varieties  that  are  adapted  to  the  locality 
in  which  the  orchard  is  located  is  perhaps  even  more  impor- 
tant than  the  question  discussed  in  the  preceding  article. 
It  is  no  more  possible  to  name  a  best  variety  of  apples  or  a 
most  profitable  variety  of  apples  than  it  is  possible  to  say  that 
a  given  soil  is  best.  A  variety  of  apples  that  does  well  in  one 
section  may  be  entirely  unsuited  to  another  section,  hence 
suggestions  for  the  selection  of  varieties  must  be  along  general 

'lines.  Unless  the  orchardist  is  already  posted  as  to  what 
varieties  are  being  grown  successfully  in  his  section,  one  of 
the  first  steps  should  be  to  obtain  this  information.  This 
may  be  done  by  visiting  successful  orchards  in  his  locality, 
by  correspondence  with  horticulturists  and  horticultural  asso- 
ciations, and  by  a  study  of  periodicals  devoted  to  orcharding. 

12.  In  the  following  paragraphs  some  general  suggestions 
with  reference  to  standard  varieties  suitable  for  various  apple- 
growing  sections  are  offered,  but  it  should  be  understood  that 
they  are,  as  stated,  general  suggestions,  and  that  it  is  expected 
that  the  grower  will  consider  them  in  connection  with  the 
other  sources  of  information  already  enumerated. 

Throughout  the  United  States  and  Canada  there  is,  of  course, 
a  wide  diversity  of  soil  and  chmatic  conditions,  but  it  is  pos- 
sible to  divide  this  area  into  sections  in  which  these  conditions 
are,  to  a  greater  or  less  extent,  uniform.  Different  authori- 
ties on  apple  growing  make  somewhat  different  divisions  of 
the  territory,  and  it  is  obvious  that  the  lines  of  division  between 
two  sections  cannot  be  sharply  drawn.  The  classification  of 
sections  given  herewith  is  offered  merely  as  a  general  indication 
of  localities  in  which  approximately  similar  conditions  as  to 
apple  growing  exist.  The  varieties  mentioned  in  connection 
with  the  different  sections  are  not  strictly  limited  to  those 
sections,  and  there  are  likely  to  be  restricted  areas  in  any  or  all 
of  the  sections  in  which  the  conditions  will  differ  from  the  gen- 
eral average  of  the  region.     Notwithstanding  these  departures, 


§  4  APPLE  CULTURE  13 

however,  the  general  facts  set  forth  in  the  classification  will 
serve  as  a  guide  to  an  orchardist  in  selecting  varieties  to  meet 
his  conditions. 

13.  Varieties  for  the  New  York  Section. — By  far  the 

most  important  apple-growing  section  in  North  America  is 
what  may  be  designated  the  New  York  section  which  com- 
prises, in  addition  to  the  state  of  New  York,  the  New  England 
states,  Pennsylvania,  and  parts  of  Ohio  and  Michigan.  The 
leading  variety  of  the  New  York  section  is  the  Baldwin  and  two 
other  varieties  that  are  extensively  planted  and  successfully 
grown  in  the  section  are  the  Northern  Spy  and  the  Rhode 
Island  Greening.  A  very  large  percentage  of  the  crop  is  made 
up  of  the  varieties  mentioned,  but  there  are,  of  course,  many 
other  varieties  that  do  well  and  yield  satisfactory  returns. 
Among  these  may  be  mentioned  Tompkins  King,  Roxbury, 
Golden  Russet,  Hubbardston,  Esopus,  Spitzenburg,  Ben  Davis, 
Tolman  Sweet,  Twenty  Ounce,  Seek-No-Further,  Fameuse, 
Yellow  and  Green  Newton,  Oldenburg,  Wealthy,  Mcintosh, 
Alexander,  Blue  Pearmain  and  Rome  Beauty. 

In  a  considerable  portion  of  Michigan  the  apples  grown  are 
similar  to  those  grown  in  New  York,  though  a  number  of 
Michigan  seedlings  have  come  to  be  of  considerable  importance, 
and  in  the  sandy  region  of  Northern  Michigan  the  Oldenburg 
is  grown  very  largely  for  marketing  in  the  summer.  Wealthy, 
Fameuse,  and  Mcintosh  are  also  good  apples  in  this  section, 
as  they  are  in  Wisconsin  and  parts  of  Minnesota.  Even  in 
extremely  cold  regions  like  the  Dakotas  these  varieties  do  fairly 
well,  but  some  hardy  Russian  varieties  like  the  Wolf  River  and 
Alexander  are  perhaps  better  for  such  localities. 

14.  Varieties  for  the  Virginia  Section. — The  region 
to  which  some  authorities  have  given  the  name  Virginia  sec- 
tion comprises  New  Jersey,  Delaware,  Maryland,  Virginia, 
West  Virginia,  and  parts  of  Kentucky,  Ohio,  and  Indiana. 
Some  of  the  varieties  most  extensively  grown  in  the  Virginia 
section  are  the  Ben  Davis,  Jonathan,  Grimes  Golden,  Rome 
Beauty,  York  Imperial,  Green  and  Yellow  Newton,  Albemarle, 
and  the  Winesaps.     In  the  higher  moimtain  regions  of  this 


14  APPLE  CULTURE  §  4 

section  the  Baldwin  and  other  apples  that  are  popular  in  the 
New  York  section  are  extensively  grown.  The  Grimes  Golden 
is  said  to  reach  its  best  development  in  the"  Virginia  section. 
A  part  of  this  section,  especially  Delaware,  Virginia,  Mary- 
land, and  adjoining  localities  is  particularly  noted  for  the  pro- 
duction of  summer  apples. 

15.  Varieties  for  tlie  Missouri  Section. — The  Missoiiri 
section  includes  Missouri,  Arkansas,  part  of  Illinois,  Kansas, 
and  Oklahoma,  and  some  regions  adjacent  to  these  states. 
The  Ben  Davis  is  the  predominant  variety  in  the  section,  and 
some  of  the  other  more  important  varieties  are  Jonathan,  the 
Winesap  group.  Grimes  Golden,  Ingram,  and  York  Imperial. 
Probably  the  best  winter  apple  for  this  section  is  the  Ingram. 

The  Ben  Davis  group  includes  varieties  known  as  Gano, 
Black  Ben,  and  Ben  Davis.  Of  these,  the  latter  is  probably 
most  extensively  planted,  but  it  is  possible  that  the  Gano  or 
the  Black  Ben  is  more  valuable.  The  Winesap  group  includes 
the  Winesap,  Stajmian,  Arkansas,  Arkansas  Black,  King  David 
and  others. 

New  varieties  that  are  promising  in  this  section  are  King 
David,  Delicious,  Stayman  Winesap,  and  Magnate. 

In  Southern  Illinois  summer  apples  have  come  to  be  exten- 
sively grown.  Yellow  Transparent,  Benoni,  Sops  of  Wine, 
Early  Harvest,  Maiden  Blush,  and  Wealthy  are  grown.  The 
Wealthy  is  also  grown  extensively  in  Missouri.  Apparently 
the  best  siimmer  apple  for  the  Ozark  region  in  Missouri  and 
Arkansas  is  Benoni,  since  it  seems  to  be  adapted  to  that  soil 
and  withstands  spring  frosts. 

16.  Varieties  for  the  Colorado  Section. — In  the  Colo- 
rado section,  which  includes  the  state  from  which  it  is  named 
and  adjoining  regions  in  which  conditions  are  similar,  there  is 
a  very  wide  range  of  varieties.  The  Bellflower  is  extensively 
grown,  as  well  as  Wealthy,  Alexander,  Mcintosh,  Jonathan, 
Rome  Beauty,  and  the  Winesap  class.  The  Wealthy  and 
Alexander  are  especially  well  adapted  to  the  higher  mountain 
regions. 


§  4  APPLE  CULTURE  15 

17.     Varieties  for  tlie  Northwest. — In  the  Hood  River 

district  of  the  Northwest,  the  most  important  varieties  are  the 
Spitzenburg  and  Newtown.  The  Ortley  is  also  coming  into 
prominence  in  this  region.  In  other  sections  of  the  Northwest, 
the  Spitzenburg,  Newtown,  and  Ortley  varieties  are  important, 
as  are  also  the  Jonathan,  Grimes  Golden,  Winter  Banana, 
Arkansas  Black,  Winesap,  King  David,  and  Delicious;  and  the 
Ben  Davis  is  also  a  common  variety.  The  Winesap  type  of 
apples  is  grown  more  in  the  warmer  valleys  of  the  Northwest. 
In  the  Bitter  Root  valley  only  the  hardiest  varieties  are  grown 
successfully,  the  two  most  important  being  Mcintosh  and 
Alexander,  though  Wealthy  and  Fameuse  are  also  grown. 


SELECTION  OF  NURSERY  STOCK 

18.  Buying  of  Nursery  Stock. — In  most  cases  the  man 
who  is  putting  out  an  orchard  will  find  it  advisable  to  buy  his 
nursery  stock  directly  from  a  nursery,  and  it  is,  of  course,  well 
to  know  something  of  the  honesty  and  reliability  of  the  nursery- 
man. If  it  is  planned  to  order  from  a  nursery  in  any  large 
quantity,  it  will  always  be  advisable  to  ask  for  the  wholesale 
price  list  and  to  get  quotations  from  more  than  one  firm,  since 
considerable  may  be  saved  in  some  cases  by  so  doing.  The 
practice  of  buying  from  agents  and  accepting  their  advice 
as  to  varieties,  age  of  trees,  and  other  details  is  not  one  that 
is  likely  to  prove  satisfactory.  No  nursery  trees  should  be 
accepted  that  do  not  bear  a  certificate  from  a  state  or  a  national 
nursery  inspector  showing  that  the  nursery  is  free  from  danger- 
ous insects  and  diseases.  The  buyer  should  also  insist  on  get- 
ting the  varieties  he  orders.  Some  nurserymen  take  the  liberty 
of  substituting  in  case  they  are  unable  to  supply  the  variety 
ordered,  and  for  this  reason  it  is  a  good  plan  to  specify  on  each 
order  that  no  substitution  will  be  accepted. 

19.  Appearance  of  Nursery  Trees. — ^A  good  rule  for 
guidance  in  the  selection  of  nursery  stock  is  to  choose  trees 
that  have  made  a  good,  vigorous  growth  in  the  nursery.  Trees 
that  have  made  a  slow,  weak  growth  in  the  nursery  may  be  as 
likely  to  live  as  those  that  have  made  a  more  vigorous  growth, 


16 


APPLE  CULTURE 


but  the  former  will  probably  be  a  year  or  two  later  than  the 
latter  in  coming  into  bearing,  and,  as  a  rule,  the  mature  trees 
will  scarcely  be  as  good. 

The  roots  of  a  good  nursery  tree  should  be  strong  and  well 
developed,  and  there  should  be,  for  best  results,  four  or  five 


large  rather  than  a  lot  of  small  roots  clustered  around  the  old 
root  that  formed  a  part  of  the  graft.  In  Fig.  1  (a)  is  shown  a 
desirable  1-year-old  tree;  in  (6)  is  shown  a  good  2-year-old 
tree;  and  in  (c)  is  shown  a  2-year-old  tree  that  has  made  a 
slow,  weak  growth,  probably  due  to  a  poor  soil  in  the  nursery. 


§4  •  APPLE  CULTURE  17 

20.  Age  of  Nursery  Trees. — Beginners  frequently  make 
the  mistake  of  selecting  2-year-old  trees,  regardless  of  their 
quality,  in  preference  to  1-year-old  trees.  A  good-sized, 
healthy  1-year-old  tree  is  better  under  some  conditions  than  a 
2-year-old  tree,  and  some  orchardists  declare  a  strong  prefer- 
ence for  the  former.  The  location  and  spacing  of  the  branches 
on  a  2-year-old  tree  will  be  determined  by  the  condition  under 
which  the  tree  was  grown  in  the  nursery.  Usually  there  will 
be  a  dense  growth  of  limbs  beginning  about  1|  or  2  feet  up 
on  the  main  stem,  then  a  space  containing  no  limbs,  then 
another  dense  growth  of  young  limbs.  Such  a  condition  often 
makes  it  difficult  for  the  orchardist  to  start  branches  exactly 
where  it  is  desired  to  have  them.  A  large  1-year-old  tree,  say 
4  feet  in  height,  can  be  cut  back  a  little  before  planting,  and 
still  be  left  long  enough  that  the  four  or  five  limbs  desired  can 
be  spaced  so  chat  none  of  them  will  be  closer  than  5  or  6  inches 
from  its  nearest  neighbors.  However,  a  good  2-year-old  tree 
will  usually  withstand  more  adverse  conditions,  especially 
severe  cold  if  planted  in  the  fall,  than  will  a  1-year-old  tree. 

21.  Northern- Grown    and    Soutliern- Grown  Trees. 

Some  difference  of  opinion  exists  among  orchardists  as  to 
whether  or  not  northern-grown  trees  are  hardier  than  southern- 
grown  trees.  It  may  be  said,  however,  that  most  authorities 
are  agreed  that  a  tree  is  hardy  or  tender  according  to  the  vari- 
ety rather  than  according  to  where  the  tree  was  grown.  For 
example,  each  Ben  Davis  tree  is  a  part  of  the  original  Ben  Davis 
tree  and  its  ability  to  withstand  cold  is  determined  by  hereditary 
qualities  that  existed  in  the  original  Ben  Davis  tree  rather  than 
by  the  climatic  condition  under  which  a  tree  was  grown  in  the 
nursery.  Of  course,  if  trees  are  grown  in  a  southern  nursery 
and  continue  to  grow  so  late  in  the  fall  that  the  wood  does 
not  have  time  to  ripen  before  freezing  weather,  they  are  in  no 
condition  to  withstand  winters  farther  north.  The  best  plan 
is  to  insist  on  trees  that  are  well  matured  rather  than  on  trees 
that  have  been  grown  in  a  certain  section. 

22.  Value  of  Trees  Propagated  by  Various  Methods. 

Some  nurservmen  claim  that  a  tree  made  from  a  whole-root 


18  APPLE  CULTURE  §  4 

graft  will  be  permanently  a  better  tree  than  one  made  from  a 
piece-root  graft.  They  base  this  claim  on  the  fact  that  a  tree 
from  the  whole-root  graft  will  have  a  tap  root — that  is,  a  root 
running  straight  down  from  the  body  of  the  tree — and  will 
tend  to  grow  deep;  with  a  piece-root  graft,  the  tap  root  will 
have  been  lost  and  the  roots  will  tend  to  spread  out  in  the  soil. 
From  the  description  of  grafting  operations  as  detailed  in 
another  Section,  it  will  be  seen  that  this  claim  is  ridiculous, 
since  in  both  cases  the  tap  root  has  been  cut;  the  only  difference 
is  that  in  one  case  the  root  has  been  cut  a  little  shorter  than  in 
the  other.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  only  advantage  of  the  whole- 
root  graft  is  to  the  nurseryman.  Sometimes  he  is  able  by  the 
system  of  grafting  whole  roots  to  secure  a  larger  percentage  of 
trees  that  will  grade,  say,  4  feet  or  over  when  they  are  1  year  old. 

Actual  experience  with  whole-root  and  piece-root  trees  shows 
no  difference  in  bearing  qualities  or  ability  to  root  deep  in  the 
soil.  At  the  Missouri  Experiment  Station  there  are  a  nimiber 
of  Jonathan  trees,  one-fourth  of  which  were  secured  from  piece 
roots  taken  from  the  first  piece  at  the  top,  one-fourth  from  piece 
roots  taken  from  the  second  piece  from  the  top,  one-fourth 
from  piece  roots  taken  from  the  third  piece  from  the  top,  and 
one-fourth  were  from  whole  roots,  the  roots  being  actually 
whole  roots  and  not  large  piece  roots  such  as  are  commonly 
spoken  of  as  whole  roots.  In  every  case  the  piece-root  trees 
are  as  profitable  as  the  whole-root  trees. 

Some  nurseries  claim  better  results  from  budded  trees  than 
from  grafted  trees,  the  theory  being  that  there  is  not  a  per- 
manent union  between  che  stock  and  the  scion  in  the  case  of 
the  grafted  trees.  These  claims  are  usually  made  by  agents 
who,  in  many  cases,  have  with  them  a  portion  of  a  grafted 
tree  cut  through  lengthwise  in  such  a  way  that  the  original 
graft  shows  and  they  often  emphasize  strongly  the  fact  that 
this  has  never  permanently  united  but  has  only  been  grown 
over  with  new  wood.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  if  a  budded  tree 
were  cut  through  to  show  where  the  bud  was  inserted,  it  would 
be  found  that  the  old  dead  end  of  the  stock  is  there  just  as  it 
is  in  the  case  of  the  grafted  tree,  and  it  may  be  said  that  there 
is  absolutely  no  fundamental  difference  between  budded  and 


§  4  APPLE  CULTURE  19 

grafted  trees  in  this  respect.  Of  course,  if  the  budded  tree 
were  budded  on  a  2-year-old  root  instead  of  a  1-year-old  root, 
it  should  be  larger  at  the  end  of  the  first  year,  and  a  very  large, 
strong,  stocky  whip  is  the  most  ideal  tree  to  set;  but  if  these 
can  be  secured  from  grafted  trees  they  are  equally  as  good  as 
from  budded  trees. 

23.     Home  Propagation  of  Apple  Trees. — If  a  man  is 

sufhciently  acquainted  with  the  niursery  business,  it  may  at 
times  be  profitable  for  him  to  propagate  his  trees,  especially 
if  he  has  limited  capital  and  is  doing  his  own  work  on  the  farm. 
The  stocks  and  scions  can  be  secured  much  more  cheaply  than 
the  trees,  and  he  can  care  for  them  at  odd  times  or  by  working 
overtime.  But,  as  a  rule,  it  is  only  in  case  of  a  man  who  has 
had  considerable  experience  in  this  work  that  this  course  would 
be  advisable,  and  then  it  will  not  pay  unless  he  has  a  soil  that 
will  grow  a  strong,  young  tree.  If  a  man  is  hiring  his  work 
done  it  wiU  certainly  not  pay,  for  the  reason  that  by  growing 
them  on  a  small  scale  the  work  will  have  to  be  done  in  a  less 
efficient  manner  or  more  expensive  manner  than  if  they  are 
grown  on  a  large  scale  as  in  a  nursery.  Further,  if  there  is 
lack  of  skill  on  the  part  of  the  workmen  so  that  only  a  small 
percentage  of  the  trees  grown  make  good  trees,  home  propa- 
gation is  likely  to  be  extremely  unsatisfactory. 


PLANTING  OF  APPLE  TREES 

24.  Time  of  Planting'. — ^Apple  trees  may  be  planted  in 
the  spring  or  in  the  fall,  and  there  has  been  much  discussion 
as  to  whether  spring  planting  or  fall  planting  is  best.  In  Can- 
ada and  the  northern  part  of  the  United  States  away  from  the 
Great  Lakes,  spring  planting  will  probably  always  be  most 
advisable,  for  in  such  climates  there  is  likely  to  be  consider- 
able winter  injury  to  the  young  trees  planted  in  the  fall.  Trees 
planted  in  the  spring  escape  some  adverse  conditions  that  must 
be  endured  by  trees  planted  in  the  fall,  and  unless  there  are 
some  distinct  advantages  in  fall  planting,  spring  planting  is 
usually  preferred.     However,  it  is  well  known  that  soil  at  a 


20  APPLE  CULTURE  §4 

depth  of  a  few  inches  remains  warm  in  the  fall  long  after  the 
air  becomes  too  cold  for  plant  growth.  Then,  unless  the  roots 
have  a  rest  period  like  the  tops,  it  woiild  be  expected  that  some 
root  growth  would  be  made  in  the  fall  and  thus  the  trees  would 
be  ready  to  start  off  into  a  more  rapid  growth  in  the  spring. 
This  matter  has  not  been  tested  as  extensively  as  it  should  be, 
but  a  few  tests  have  indicated  tmquestionably  that  in  a  mild 
climate  such  as  that  in  Missouri,  Illinois,  Virginia,  etc.,  there 
may  be  root  growth  in  the  fall.  The  Missoiiri  Botanical 
Garden,  cooperating  with  the  Nebraska  Experiment  Station, 
foimd  that  in  some  cases  root  growth  was  made  by  apple 
trees  in  the  fall  when  the  trees  were  planted  early  in  the  fall, 
and  the  Missouri  Experiment  Station  has  confirmed  this  finding. 

The  important  test  of  fall  planting,  however,  is  the  growth  • 
made  by  the  trees  the  season  following  as  compared  with  spring- 
planted  trees.  As  the  result  of  the  experiment  at  the  Missouri 
Botanical  Garden,  the  following  figures  v/ere  given  for  the 
growth  of  the  roots  and  top:  The  trees  were  dug  on  July  2 
and  top  and  root  growth  measured.  In  the  case  of  Ben  Davis 
apples  the  average  top  growth  for  fall-planted  trees  was 
14  inches,  and  the  root  growth  8  inches;  for  spring-planted 
trees  the  top  growth  was  12  inches  and  the  root  growth  5  inches. 
In  the  case  of  fall-planted  Shackleford  trees,  the  top  growth 
was  17  inches  and  the  root  growth  5  inches;  for  spring-planted 
trees  the  top  growth  was  7  inches  and  root  growth  9  inches. 
In  the  case  of  fall-planted  Winesap  trees  the  top  growth  was 
12  inches  and  the  root  growth  8  inches;  for  spring-planted  trees 
the  top  gro^vth  was  7  inches  and  the  root  growth  6  inches. 
In  the  case  of  fall-planted  Oldenburg  trees  the  top  growth  was 
7  inches  and  the  root  growth  7  inches;  for  spring-planted  trees 
the  top  growth  was  10  inches  and  the  root  growth  8  inches. 

25.  In  experiments  conducted  at  the  University  of  Missouri 
beginning  in  1908,  the  twig  growth  was  measured  and  the 
diameter  of  the  trees  was  determined  by  means  of  calipers 
in  the  fall  of  1909  after  all  growth  had  ceased!  The  average 
linear  growth  of  the  fall-planted  trees  was  224to  inches  per 
tree,  and  the  average  increase  in  diameter  was  yf  inch;  the 


§  4  APPLE  CULTURE  21 

average  linear  growth  of  the  spring-planted  trees  was  124 
inches,  and  the  average  increase  in  diameter  was  if  inch.  In 
the  season  of  1910,  the  total  linear  growth  of  the  fall-planted 
trees  was  80j  feet  and  the  average  increase  in  diameter  was 
1^  inches;  the  average  linear  growth  of  spring-planted  trees 
was  63iV  feet,  and  the  average  increase  in  diameter  was 
IJ  inches.  It  will  be  seen  from  this  that  the  fall-planted  trees 
showed  remarkably  better  growth  than  the  spring-planted 
trees. 

In  the  latter  experiments  the  trees  planted  in  the  spring  had 
the  best  of  conditions  through  the  winter,  which  was  a  very 
mild  one;  the  trees  came  through  in  excellent  condition,  were 
left  standing  in  the  nursery  where  they  grew,  and  were  trans- 
planted from  the  nursery  to  the  orchard,  so  that  there  was  the 
least  possible  shock  from  the  transplanting. 

Such  a  course  as  this  is  seldom  if  ever  practicable  in  the  case 
of  an  orchardist  buying  trees  from  a  nursery.  Trees  pur- 
chased for  spring  planting  are  almost  always  those  that  have 
been  dug  by  nurserymen  the  preceding  fall  and  stored  in  bins, 
cellars,  or  storehouses  through  the  winter.  Although  this 
method  of  handling  trees  is  absolutely  necessary  in  any  nursery 
that  does  a  large  business,  it  is  objectionable  for  the  reason 
that  the  trees  are  kept  at  a  comparatively  high  temperature 
during  the  winter  and  the  process  of  respiration  that  goes  on 
under  this  condition  tends  to  use  up  the  plant-food  stored  up 
in  the  tree,  and  in  this  way  the  food  available  for  spring  growth 
is  reduced.  In  this  respect  fall  planting  is  preferable  to  spring 
planting,  for  fall-planted  trees  do  not  pass  the  winter  in  stor- 
age but  in  the  orchard,  where  the  temperature  is  not  favorable  ■ 
to  respiratory  action,  hence  the  supply  of  plant-food  is  not 
materially  reduced.  However,  it  is  never  advisable  to  plant 
in  the  fall  if  the  soil  is  very  dry.  Under  such  conditions  there 
is  a  risk  that  the  soil  will  contmue  dry  and  in  this  case  the  trees 
are  likely  to  die  during  the  winter.  If  the  soil  is  in  moist 
condition  at  the  time  of  planting,  however,  there  is  little 
danger  that  it  will  become  too  dry  for  the  trees  during  the 
winter,  since  the  soil  does  not  dry  out  greatly  through  the 
winter. 


22  APPLE  CULTURE  §4 

26.  For  spring  planting,  which  will  in  most  sections  "of 
the  United  States  and  Canada  be  more  satisfactory  than  fall 
planting,  nursery  stock  should  be  ordered  the  preceding  fall, 
and  it  is  likely  that  in  most  cases  fall  deHvery  of  the  stock  will 
also  be  advisable.  In  extreme  northern  sections  fall  delivery 
may  not  be  advisable,  because  where  winter  temperatures  are 
extremely  low  there  is  a  better  chance  of  the  trees  enduring 
them  without  injury  in  the  nurseryman's  storehouse  than  in 
a  cellar  or  improvised  storehouse  belonging  to  the  orchard- 
ist.  However,  in  fruit  sections  where  the  winters  are  not  so 
rigorous,  the  trees  can  usually  be  kept  through  the  winter 
in  better  condition  outside  than  in  the  nurseryman's  store- 
house. Furthermore,  by  ordering  in  the  fall,  the  buyer  is 
more  certain  to  get  the  trees  grown  by  the  nursery  from  which 
he  is  ordering,  and  can  thus  know  something  about  the 
conditions  under  which  they  are  grown;  in  the  spring  the 
nursery  is  lilcely  to  be  out  of  certain  varieties  that  may  be 
desired  and  in  such  cases  the  trees  would  perhaps  be  secured 
from  some  other  nursery. 

27.  Some  special  precautions  in  the  storage  of  nursery 
stock  between  the  time  of  delivery  and  the  time  of  planting 
is  usually  necessary.  In  most  cases  trees  will  be  received  from 
the  nursery  all  the  way  from  one  week  to  several  weeks  before 
it  is  desired  to  begin  planting.  But  even  if  the  orchardist  is 
ready  to  begin  planting  the  very  day  the  trees  are  received 
it  will  probably  be  necessary  to  store  some  of  them  while  others 
are  being  planted,  and  unless  this  storage  is  under  suitable  con- 
ditions great  injury  may  be  done  to  the  young  trees.  Orchard- 
ists  commonly  resort  to  what  is  known  as  heeling-in  as  a  means 
of  preventing  injury  to  nursery  stock  when  it  is  not  possible 
or  advisable  to  plant  it  immediately  on  its  receipt  from  the 
nursery. 

To  heel-in  trees,  a  trench  is  dug  with  a  straight  side  against 
which  the  roots  are  placed  and  a  slanting  side  on  which  the 
tops  lie,  as  shown  in  Fig.  2  (a).  This  trench  should  be  dug 
approximately  1  foot  deep,  in  a  well-drained  place.  All  bundles 
of  trees  should  be  opened  and  the  trees  distributed  along  the 


APPLE  CULTURE 


23 


trench  so  that  the  earth  can  be  packed  firmly  around  each 
tree.  The  soil  should  be  fiUed  in  over  the  roots  and  up  at  least 
6  or  8  inches  on  the  trunks.  A  row  of  nursery  trees  heeled-in 
according  to  the  plan  described  is  shown  in  Fig.  2  (b) . 

It  has  been  observed  that  few  men  will  take  as  much  care 
to  heel-in  trees  as  should  be  taken,  and  doubtless  many  trees 


(aj 


m 


are  seriously  injured  in  this  way.  If  a  tree  is  thus  injured  it 
may,  in  time,  recover  from  the  effects,  but  it  can  scarcely  make 
as  good  a  tree  as  if  proper  attention  had  been  given  to  the 
details  of  heeling-in. 

28.  Sometimes,  when  the  trees  are  secured  in  the  fall  and 
well-drained  soil  is  available,  it  pays  to  cover  both  the  roots 
and  the  tops  of  the  trees.     The  advantage  of  this  is  not  alone 


24  APPLE  CULTURE  §4 

in  preventing  freezing,  but  also  in  preventing  the  starting  of 
the  trees  into  growth  by  warm  days  in  winter.  Heeled-in  in 
this  way  they  do  not  reach  a  temperature  above  that  of  the 
soil,  which,  during  the  winter,  is  never  high  enough  to  start 
growth.  This  is  a  very  desirable  method  in  southern  apple- 
growing  sections  to  prevent  starting  growth  during  winter 
if  the  trees  are  not  set  in  the  fall,  and  is  also  very  desirable  in 
extreme  northern  sections  as  a  means  of  preventing  winter 
injury  to  the  trees.  But,  as  stated,  it  is  not  permissible  except 
in  localities  where  well-drained  soil  is  available. 

29.  Distance  for  Planting  Apple  Trees. — The  ques- 
tion of  proper  distance  for  planting  apple  trees  is  one  that 
deserves  careful  consideration  by  the  man  who  is  putting  out 
an  orchard.  Undoubtedly  many  beginners  rnake  the  mistake 
of  getting  the  trees  close  together.     With  average  varieties, 

25  feet  apart  each  way  may  be  considered  the  minimiim  dis- 
tance, and  50  feet  apart  each  way  is  about  the  maximum,  but 
this  latter  distance  is  certainly  too  great  if  it  is  intended  to 
keep  the  trees  down  to  manageable  size.  In  rich  soils  probably 
35  feet  may  be  taken  as  an  average  distance  for  planting, 
although  in  many  soils  this  may  be  a  greater  distance  than  is 
necessary  if  the  trees  receive  the  proper  repressive  pruning. 
It  is  unquestionably  a  serious  matter  to  get  trees  planted  too 
close.  It  is  not  uncommon  to  see  orchards  in  which  the  trees 
are  so  close  that  most  of  them  fail  to  set  good  bloom,  and  in 
sections  in  the  same  orchard  where  a  few  trees  are  missing  the 
trees  that  had  more  room  may  have  set  a  good  crop  of  bloom. 
Just  what  the  distance  should  be  under  good  system  of  repres- 
sive pruning  has  not  been  carefully  determined,  but  experience 
indicates  that  an  average  of  25  feet  for  thin  hill  soil  will  give 
desirable  results;  for  a  soil  where  trees  make  a  rather  vigorous 
growth,  30  or  35  feet  may  be  taken  as  a  more  desirable  distance. 


SYSTEMS    OF  PLANTING 

30.  A  number  of  different  systems  of  planting  with  refer- 
ence to  the  number  of  trees  per  acre,  the  spacing  of  trees  in  the 
rows  and  the  rows  in  the  orchard,  are  in  use  among  practical 


APPLE  CULTURE- 


25 


orchardists.  The  most  important  systems  will  be  described 
in  succeeding  paragraphs,  but  no  attempt  will  be  made  to 
enumerate  aU  of  Lhe  various  modifications  of  these  systems 
that  are  made  to  meet  special  conditions.  It  is  well  for  the 
beginner  to  study  the  plans  outlined  and  determine  for  himself 
which  is  best  suited  to  his  conditions,  for  it  cannot  be  said  that 
any  one  is  unqualifiedly  best. 

Of  the  planting  systems  that  are  described  subsequently 
some  permit  the  planting  of  a  greater  number  of  trees  on  a 
given  area  than  others.  In  Table  I  are  given  figures  that  will 
enable  an  orchardist  to  determine  approximately  how  many 
trees  may  be  planted  on  a  given  area  by  the  various  systems. 
In  the  case  of  small  plantings  or  plantings  on  plots  of  irreg- 
ular shape  it  may  not  be  possible  to  get  the  full  number 
specified  in  the  table,  but  except  under  such  conditions  the 
figures  are  accurate  enough  for  practical  purposes. 

TABLE  I 
NUMBER    OF    TREES  TO  PLANT   PER   ACRE   BY   VARIOUS  SYSTEMS 


Distance  Apart 

Square  System 

Quincunx 

System 

Hexagonal 

System 

16X16 

170 

303 

196 

18X18 

134 

239 

154 

20X20 

108 

192 

124 

22X22 

90 

148 

104 

24X24 

76 

132 

87 

25X25 

70 

125 

80 

26X26 

64 

114 

74 

28X28 

56 

100 

64 

'30X30 

48 

85 

55 

32X32 

43 

76 

49 

33X33 

40 

71 

46 

36X36 

34 

60 

39 

40X40 

27 

48 

32 

45X45 

22 

39 

25 

248—13 


26 


APPLE  CULTURE 


31.  Square  System. — Doubtless  the  system  most  com- 
monly used  is  what  is  known  as  the  square  system,  in  which  the 
trees  are  arranged  in  squares.  In  Fig.  3  is  shown  a  small  tract 
laid  out  for  planting  trees  by  the  square  system,  with  some  of 
the  trees  in  place  at  a.  The  distance  between  the  trees  in  a  row 
is  the  same  as  the  distance  between  rows.  As  before  stated,  this 
system  of  planting  is  extensively  followed,  and  its  simplicity 
makes  it  well  adapted  for  inexperienced  orchardists.  Never- 
theless, it  has  its  disadvantages,  one  of  the  chief  of  which  is  the 
fact  that  it  does  not  distribute  the  trees  evenly  over  the  area 
planted.     The  trees  are  all  the  same  distance  apart  in  the  rows 


-@:7— 


1/ 


■/.■Kk 


Fig.  3 


and  cross-rows,  but  in  a  diagonal  direction  the  distance  between 
trees  is  considerably  greater.  For  example,  in  Fig.  3  if  the  trees 
are  planted  30  feet  apart  in  the  rows,  the  rows  will  also  be  30  feet 
apart  but  the  distance  between  alternate  trees  in  two  adjacent 
rows  will  be  somewhat  in  excess  of  42  feet,  and  if  the  trees  are 
planted  40  feet  apart  in  the  rows  the  diagonal  distance  between 
trees  will  be  upwards  of  56  feet. 

If  fillers,  which  subject  is  discussed  elsewhere  in  the  Section, 
are  used  in  the  square  system  of  planting,  one  plan  is  to  alter- 
nate fillers  with  permanents  in  each  row.  Thus,  in  Fig.  3  the 
trees  marked  /  would  be  fillers.     When  the  fillers  are  removed 


§4 


APPLE  CULTURE 


27 


the  permanent  trees  are  still  in  the  square  system  but  the  rows 
and  cross-rows  will  run  diagonally  with  the  original  rows  and 
the  distance  between  rows  and  trees  will  be  the  diagonal  of 
the  original  squares.  Other  methods  of  planting  fillers  in  the 
square  system  are  discussed  under  the  subject  of  fillers. 

32.  Quincunx  System. — ^A  plan  of  orchard  planting  known 
as  the  quincunx  system  is  in  favor  with  some  orchardists,  but 
it  cannot  be  said  that  the  system  is  extensively  used.  As  sug- 
gested by  the  prefix  quin,  m.eaning  five,  the  trees  are  planted 
in  fives.  Four  trees  are  planted  in  a  square  as  in  the  square 
system  and  a  fifth  tree  is  placed  in  the  center  of  the  square. 
Fig.  4  is  a  diagram  of  a  field  partly  lined  off  to  indicate  the 


■mm 


Fig.  4 


points  at  which  trees  are  to  be  planted.  When  this  plan  of 
planting  is  followed  the  usual  course  is  to  set  permanent  trees 
in  the  comers  and  a  filler  in  the  center  of  the  square.  It  will 
be  seen  from  the  diagram  that  after  the  removal  of  the  fillers 
the  remaining  trees  are  in  the  square  system.  The  distance 
between  trees  in  the  square  will  be  the  same  and  the  distance 
between  the  filler  and  the  trees  in  the  square  will  be  one-half 
of  the  diagonal  of  the  square.  Thus,  if  the  trees  are  30  feet 
apart  in  the  square,  the  diagonal  will  be  about  42  feet  and 


28  APPLE  CULTURE  §4 

the  center  tree  will  be  a  little  more  than  21  feet  from  each 
comer  tree. 

33.  Hexagonal  System. — ^Another  plan  of  orchard  plant- 
ing is  known  as  the  hexagonal  system.  By  this  system 
the  trees  of  the  second  row  alternate  or  break  joints  with  those 
of  the  first  row  and  those  of  the  third  row  alternate  with  those 
of  the  second.  The  trees  are  all  the  same  distance  apart, 
but  the  distance  between  the  rows  is  less  than  the  distance 
between  trees  in  the  rows.  The  diagram  in  Fig.  5  will  show 
how  this  condition  is  brought  about.  In  this  case  it  is  assumed 
that  the  trees  are  planted  30  feet  apart  in  the  row.  The  first 
tree  in  the  second  row  is  set  opposite  a  point  midway  between 
the  first  and  the  second  trees  in  the  first  row  and  30  feet  from 
each  of  them .     The  second  tree  of  the  second  row  is  set  opposite 

30  Feei-  Firsi-  ffoM 


Fig.  5 

a  point  midway  between  the  second  and  the  third  tree  of  the 
first  row  and  30  feet  from  each  of  them,  and  the  same  plan  is 
continued  throughout  the  orchard.  Each  tree  is  30  feet  from 
adjacent  trees  in  the  same  row  and  also  30  feet  from  adjacent 
trees  in  adjoining  rows,  but  the  distance  between  the  rows  them- 
selves is  a  little  short  of  26  feet.  This  system  permits  the  plant- 
ing of  about  15  per  cent,  more  trees  on  a  given  area  than  the 
square  system. 

The  hexagonal  system  of  planting  is  desirable  for  the  reason 
that  it  distributes  the  trees  evenly  over  the  field,  which  is  not 
the  case  in  either  of  the  systems  previously  described,  but  it  is 
objectionable  if  fillers  are  to  be  used,  because  in  this  case  it  is 
difficult  to  place  the  fillers  in  such  positions  as  to  leave  the  per- 
manent trees  in  a  desirable  arrangement  after  removing  the 


APPLE  CULTURE 


29 


former.  One  of  the  plans  that  will  leave  a  regular  arrangement 
is  to  make  each  alternate  row  all  fillers  and  alternate  fillers  with 
permanent  trees  in  the  remaining  rows.  Such  an  arrangement 
is  illustrated  in  Fig.  6,  in  which  the  large  trees  represent  per- 
manent ones  and  the  small  trees  are  the  fillers.  An  examination 
of  the  diagram  will  make  it  clear  that  the  removal  of  all  the 
fillers  sacrifices  such  a  large  percentage  of  the  trees  in  the 
orchard  that  such  a  plan  is  obviously  objectionable.  As  a 
means  of  avoiding  this  sacrifice  different  methods  of  thinning 
the  trees  are  frequently  resorted  to  and  often  the  result  is  that 


S5--^s— -t.#— ^- 


.I.J- 


■ft" 


s-j-p- 


i—i  -  «S — I  -  ■ 


■S3— j-- 


Fig.  6 


some  fillers  are  allowed  to  remain  so  long  that  many  of  the 
trees  are  seriously  injured  by  crowding. 

34.  Combination  Systems. — Not  infrequently  a  com- 
bination of  two  of  the  systems  described  is  found  to  be  better 
adapted  to  the  needs  of  the  orchardist  than  any  one  of  them 
alone.  One  such  combination  plan  is  described  herewith,  but 
others  may  be  worked  out.  The  plan  referred  to  is  illustrated 
in  Fig.  7,  from  which  it  will  be  seen  that  the  planting  is  in  the 
square  system,  with  trees  20  feet  apart.  In  the  odd-numbered 
rows,  that  is  the  first,  third,  fifth,  etc.,  fillers  are  alternated 
with  permanent  trees.  In  the  even-numbered  rows  fillers  and 
half  fillers  are  alternated,  the  temi  half  filler'  signifying  a  tree 


30 


APPLE  CULTURE 


that  is  to  remain  in  the  orchard  longer  than  a  filler  but  is  iilti- 
mately  to  be  removed  in  order  to  give  the  permanent  trees 
room.  In  the  diagram,  permanent  trees  are  indicated  by  p, 
half  fillers  by  h.f.,  and  fillers  by/.     The  fillers  may  be  taken  out 

—  eo'-o'- -I- eo'-o" 4 

(St 43h- 


cu- 


^^ 


W 


(-: 


'^. 


-<M 


■^* 


-^fi^ 


W- 


Fig.  7 


-(h.f; 


^ 


# 


,^P 


by  removing  alternate  diagonal  rows.  When  this  is  done  the 
remaining  trees  are  in  the  qmncunx  system.  Later,  when  the 
half  fillers  are  removed,  the  remaining  trees  are  in  the  square 
sysbem,  the  trees  being  40  feet  apart.  A  point  in  favor  of  this 
system  of  planting  is  that  if  the  permanent  trees  for  any 


§  4  APPLE  CULTURE  31 

reason  fail  to  make  a  satisfactory  showing  before  the  fillers  are 
removed  the  latter  may  be  retained  as  permanent  trees  and 
the  unsatisfactory  trees  removed. 


USE    OP   PILLEBS 

35.  The  interest,  taxes,  and  cost  of  cultivating  40  acres  of 
land  with,  say,  50  trees  to  the  acre  will  be  as  much  as  with  100 
trees  to  the  acre,  and  while  the  trees  are  young  the  expense 
of  pruning  and  spraying  is  comparatively  small.  If  no  profit- 
able crops  other  than  fruit  can  be  grown  between  the  rows, 
and  this  will  be  the  case  in  some  hilly,  stony  land,  it  may  some- 
times be  desirable  to  plant  what  are  known  as  fillers — that  is, 
plant  other  trees  in  addition  to  those  it  is  intended  to  leave 
permanently.  These  fillers  may  be  of  the  same  variety  as  the  .i 
trees  meant  to  be  kept  permanently,  or  they  may  be  some 
other  variety  that  comes  into  bearing  earlier.  In  all  cases 
the  intention  is  to  get  as  many  crops  as  possible  from  the  fillers 
and  when  the  trees  get  so  they  will  interfere,  to  cut  out  the  fill-, 
ers,  leaving  only  the  permanent  trees.  It  is  obvious  that  the  use 
of  fillers  may  materially  increase  the  income  from  an  orchard 
during  the  early  years  of  its  life,  but  there  may  be  another 
advantage.  For  example,  a  man  may  not  be  certain  which  of 
two  varieties  he  prefers  to  have  as  his  permanent  trees.  If  he 
plants  them  alternately  in  the  row  each  of  them  will  be  better 
known  by  the  time  they  come  into  bearing  and  he  can  be  more 
certain  which  he  prefers  to  keep  for  his  permanent  trees.  The 
danger,  however,  in  the  use  of  fillers  is  that  if  the  orchard  con- 
taining fillers  is  profitable,  the  orchardist  will  be  extremely 
reluctant  to  cut  the  latter  out  soon  enough  and  may  leave  them 
until  the  vigor  of  the  permanent  trees- is  impaired  or  the  form 
of  the  trees  injured. 

Some  plans  for  the  planting  of  fillers  in  an  orchard  have  been 
suggested  in  connection  with  the  descriptions  of  the  various 
systems  of  orchard  planting,  but  others  may  be  used. 

If  it  is  planned  to  use  the  square  system,  the  fillers  may  be 
planted  in  the  row  in  one  direction,  and  usually  the  rows  are 
best  left  the  full  distance  apart  in  the  other  direction.     Then, 


32  APPLE  CULTURE  §4 

supposing  that  the  permanent  trees  are  30  feet  apart,  the 
rows  would  be  15  feet  apart  one  way  and  30  feet  apart  the 
other,  as  in  Fig.  8.  It  is  possible,  also,  to  insert  the  fillers 
so    that    the   temporary   planting    will   be   in  the   quincunx 

p         f         p 

» '^ <© -Q » ^ ^ Q — 


Fig.  8 


system  and  the  permanent  orchard,  after  the  removal  of  the 
fillers,  will  be  in  the  square  system.  Thus,  if  the  permanent 
trees  are  30  feet  apart  each  way,  a  filler  may  be  planted  in  the 
center  of  each  of  the  squares,  which  will  give  a  quincunx  system, 

p  p  p 

^.  /pV-Jo'-o"/l/w-/vip\ 

\.  /'  \  40       '\ 

, , I Ml -^"l 

/    \     /    \      I 


Fig.  9 

as  shown  in  Fig.  9,  and  when  it  is  necessary  to  cut  out  the  fillers, 
it  wiU  be  an  easy  matter  to  simply  cut  out  these  complete 
rows.  By  this  system  there  is  the  further  advantage  that  no 
trees  of  the  fillers  will  be  closer  than  21  feet  from  the  perma- 
nent trees.     If  an  orchard  is  on  hill  land,  however,  this  may 


§  4  APPLE  CULTURE  33 

necessitate  temporary  plowing  in  the  wrong  direction  over  the 
hill.  In  this  case  planting  between  the  trees  in  the  permanent 
rows  would  perhaps  be  preferable. 

In  planting  an  orchard  that  is  to  contain  fillers,  it  is  advis- 
able to  plant  one  variety  at  a  time,  thus  reducing  the  chance 
for  mistakes. 

36.  Peaclies  as  Fillers. — Sometimes,  instead  of  using 
different  -varieties  of  apples  as  fillers,  peaches  are  planted 
between  the  apple  trees.  Advocates  of  this  practice  point  out 
the  fact  that,  as  the  life  of  the  peach^ree  is  much  shorter  than 
that  of  the  apple  tree,  the  former  may  go  through  ics  full  bear- 
ing period  before  it  needs  to  be  cut  out  of  an  apple  orchard. 
If  the  peaches  and  apples  are  to  receive  the  same  kind  of  cul- 
tivation, this  practice  may  be  desirable.  However,  it  necessi- 
tates going  into  the  orchard  at  different  times  for  the  spraying ; 
that  is,  the  apples  would  be  sprayed  at  one  time  and  the  peaches 
at  another,  or  with  a  different  mixture.  A  further  disadvantage 
is  that  the  land  where  an  apple  orchard  is  to  be  located  will 
seldom  be  altogether  desirable  for  peach  growing.  Further- 
more, it  is  likely  that  in  many  cases  the  apple  trees  will  be 
in  the  way  at  the  time  of  picking  the  peaches.  These  objections 
may  not  be  serious,  and  in  some  cases  it  may  be  desirable  to 
plant  peaches  or  some  other  stone  fruits,  as  fillers  in  an  apple 
orchard,  but  orchardists  who  have  tried  the  plan  have  found 
various  little  inconveniences  that  they  did  not  expect,  and 
have  generally  found  it  undesirable  to  mix  these  fruits  in  the 
same  planting. 

37.  Pears  as  Fillers. — Pears  may  at  times  be  used  for 
fillers,  since  pear  trees  tend  to  grow  upright.  However,  there 
are  some  objections  to  this  practice.  One  of  these  is  that  pears 
are  almost  as  long-lived  as  apples  and  do  not  come  into  bearing 
much  earlier.  Another  is  that  if  the  apples  are  varieties  that 
are  subject  to  blight,  there  would  be  a  very  great  disadvantage 
in  having  pears  in  the  orchard,  since  they  may  infect  the  apple 
trees  with  the  disease. 

38.  Small  Fruits  as  Fillers. — In  sections  where  small 
fruits  can  be  grown  profitably,  they  are  planted  between  the 


34  APPLE  CULTURE  §4 

trees  instead  of  using  tree  fruits  as  fillers.  The  advantage  of 
this  plan  is  that  the  orchardist  can  begin  to  get  something  from 
the  small  fruits  much  sooner  than  from  the  tree  fruits ;  and  they 
are  free  from  some  of  the  disadvantages  of  tree  fillers;  espe- 
cially, there  is  no  danger  that  they  will  not  be  cut  out  in  time. 
Some  orchardists  have  become  wealthy  on  the  strawberries 
grown  between  apple  trees  before  they  came  into  bearing,  and 
thus  if  for  any  reason,  the  grower  should  fail  to  secure  profits 
from  the  trees,  he  is  still  financially  ahead.  Strawberries  are 
desirable  in  an  orchard,  since  they  require  the  cultivation  that 
is  adapted  to  the  requirements  of  the  orchard,  and  are  not 
greatly  injurious  to  the  soil.  Strawberries,  however,  are  profit- 
able only  where  the  grower  is  reasonably  near  a  local  market 
so  that  they  can  be  shipped  by  express  or  hauled  into  market, 
or  in  a  section  where  there  are  many  other  people  growing 
strawberries  and  the  growers  can  cooperate  in  getting  their 
fruit  on  the  market. 

Blackberries,  also,  have  been  grown  very  satisfactorily 
between  apple-tree  rows,  but  they  are  not  as  desirable  as  straw- 
berries, since  they  present  more  difficulty  in  getting  through 
the  orchard  for  spraying,  etc.,  and  in  most  sections  they  are 
not  as  profitable  as  strawberries. 

Other  bush  fruits  have  been  used  with  various  degrees  of 
success.  Some  orchardists  grow  gooseberries  in  an  orchard, 
and  find  them  fairly  satisfactory.  The  shade  afforded  by  the 
trees  seems  in  some  cases  to  benefit  the  gooseberry  plants,  so 
that  they  make  a  better  growth  than  they  would  on  open 
ground. 

39.  Removal  of  Fillers. — The  question  of  tillage  after 
the  trees  begin  to  reach  good  size  brings  up  the  question  of 
when  to  remove  fillers,  if  temporary  trees  have  been  used 
between  the  permanent  ones.  The  general  advice  may  be 
given  to  cut  out  the  fillers  as  soon  as  the  outer  spread  of  their 
branches  begins  to  reach  the  outer  spread  of  the  branches  of 
the  adjacent  trees.  The  tendency  on  the  part  of  the  grower  is 
to  allow  the  fillers  to  stand  too  long ;  he  wants  to  get  one  more 
crop  from  them.    Frequently,  they  are  allowed  to  remain  until 


§  4  APPLE  CULTURE  35 

they  themselves  are  crowded  so  they  cease  to  produce  well 
and  until  in  turn  they  crowd  and  injure  the  permanent  trees. 
The  orchardist  should  be  prepared  to  remove  the  fillers  promptly 
as  soon  as  the  permanent  trees  need  all  the  room.  Ordinarily, 
it  is  a  simple  matter  for  the  orchardist  to  tell  by  observation 
when  two  adjacent  trees  begin  to  interfere  with  each  other's 
best  development. 

METHODS    OF    PLANTING 

40.  Plan  of  the  Orchard. — In  laying  out  a  large  orchard, 
it  is  not  best  to  have  the  entire  orchard  in  one  block;  it  should 
be  laid  out  into  several  blocks  with  roadways  around  them. 
Usually  there  should  be  roadways  around  every  40  acres  and 
in  addition  to  this  there  should  be  a  wide  row  probably  every 
eight  or  ten  rows.  For  example,  if  the  distance  the  trees  are 
set  is  25  feet,  probably  the  tenth  or  eleventh  row  should  be 
35  feet,  or  if  the  trees  are  to  become  large  and  are  set  35  feet 
apart,  the  distance  between  the  tenth  and  eleventh  rows  should 
be  40  feet,  though  in  many  cases  with  the  trees  35  feet  apart 
they  will  not  become  so  large  that  these  wider  rows  will  be 
necessary. 

There  are  several  reasons  for  planting  an  orchard  in  blocks  of 
about  ten  rows  as  suggested.  In  hatding  out  the  brush  from 
pruning,  it  is  often  practical  to  use  a  hay  frame  and  haul  large 
spreading  loads.  In  this  case  hauling  between  the  ordinary 
orchard  rows  would  injiire  some  of  the  limbs.  Furthermore, 
it  is  convenient  to  get  through  with  loads  of  fruit  if  wider  roads 
are  left  at  intervals.  Another  reason  for  planting  the  trees 
in  blocks  is  to  seciu-e  pollination.  Many  of  the  varieties  used 
commercially  must  be  pollinated  from  some  other  variety. 
Thus,  with  the  Jonathan,  it  is  necessary  to  have  some  variety 
Hke  Ben  Davis,  Delicious,  or  Wealthy  to  pollinate  it.  It  is 
best  to  alternate  in  blocks  rather  than  in  rows  for  the  sake  of 
convenience.  Ten  rows  is  here  suggested  as  a  size  of  the  block, 
because  so  far  as  experience  indicates,  five  rows  seems  to  be 
as  far  as  pollination  is  satisfactorily  accomplished.  In  a  plant- 
ing of  ten  rows  of  Ben  Davis  or  Delicious,  and  ten  rows  of 
Jonathan,  then  ten  rows  of  Ben  Davis  or  Delicious,  and  so  on, 


36  APPLE  CULTURE  §  4 

there  will  be  five  rows  of  Jonathan  pollinated  well  from  the 
other  variety  in  each  direction. 

41.  Preparation  of  Soil  for  Planting. — In  planting 
young  trees,  it  is  desirable  to  secure  vigorous  vegetable  growth 
just  as  in  the  case  of  com  or  any  other  crop  that  may  be  grown. 
It  is  therefore  desirable  to  have  the  land  in  as  good  a  condition 
for  rapid  vegetative  growth  as  it  is  possible  to  get  it  without 
the  expenditure  of  an  excessive  amount  of  money.  There  may 
be  occasional  cases  where  it  does  not  pay  to  go  to  the  expense  of 
working  the  land  into  a  good  state  of  fertility  and  cultivation 
before  planting,  particularly  if  the  soil  is  light  and  gravelly. 
In  m'any  cases,  even  though  the  soil  is  very  poor,  an  excellent 
growth  can  be  secured  on  the  young  trees  by  the  use  of  fertil- 
izers. However,  in  the  case  of  a  heavy  clay  soil  that  is  badly 
worn,  the  fertihzers  do  not  show  the  immediate  benefits  that 
they  do  with  hght  soils.  For  this  reason  it  is  more  important 
with  clay  soils  to  get  the  soil  into  a  good  state  of  fertility  and 
cultivation  before  the  orchard  is  planted,  even  if  to  do  this  it 
is  necessary  to  grow  crops  like  cowpeas  for  a  year  or  two  before 
planting  the  orchard. 

42.  Most  orchard  soils  are  timber  soils  rather  than  prairie 
soils,  and  if  it  is  new  land,  clearing  will  be  the  first  operation 
in  preparation  for  orchard  planting.  If  the  timber  is  very 
large  and  the  soil  rich  and  the  style  of  orcharding  is  to  be 
intensive,  that  is  if  a  good  deal  of  money  is  to  be  expended  on 
an  acre  and  there  is  rather  certain  prospect  for  a  good  return, 
it  will  pay  to  get  the  stumps  out  of  the  land  while  clearing. 
In  this  case  the  cost  of  clearing  is  high,  particularly  if  there  are 
many  large  trees.  In  certain  districts  of  the  Northwest  where 
clearing  the  land  of  the  stumps  is  practiced,  the  cost  varies 
from  $75  to  $200  an  acre.  With  many  hill  soils  in  some  apple 
sections  of  the  country,  such  an  expenditure  would  not  be 
justified  by  the  returns  that  can  be  hoped  for  from  an  acre. 
Where  the  land  is  merely  cleared  without  pulling  or  blasting 
the  stumps,  the  cost  of  clearing  will  range  from  $8  to  possibly 
$40  an  acre,  depending  on  the  kind  of  timber.  In  some  cases 
the  timber  on  the  land  will  pay  for  the  clearing,  though  with  a 


§4  APPLE  CULTURE  37 

great  deal  of  orchard  soil  the  timber  on  the  land  is  not  valuable. 

For  best  results  the  ground  should  be  broken  deep  before  the 
planting  of  the  trees.  As  a  rule,  it  may  be  said  that  the  heavier 
the  clay,  the  deeper  it  should  be  broken,  and  on  an  average 
from  5  to  7  inches  would  be  approximately  the  proper  depth  to 
break. 

Tile  drainage  is  not  generally  necessary  in  an  orchard,  because 
soils  that  are  of  such  a  nature  as  to  require  such  treatment 
are,  as  a  rule,  unsuitable  for  orchard  purposes.  Furthermore, 
tile  drainage  is  likely  to  be  rather  inefficient  in  an  orchard,  for 
the  reason  that  the  roots  of  the  trees  will  penetrate  the  drains 
and  clog  them. 

43.  Trees  that  are  to  be  planted  in  the  spring  should  be  set 
out  as  early  as  possible,  and,  as  it  is  a  well-known  fact  that 
fall-plowed  land  becomes  warm  and  dry  enough  to  work  in 
the  spring  sooner  than  spring-plowed  land,  the  ground  should 
be  broken  in  the  fall,  and,  if  possible,  it  is  advisable  to  leave  it 
rough  until  spring.  It  is  usually  better,  just  before  planting 
time  in  the  spring,  to  work  the  ground  down  thoroughly,  not 
only  so  it  will  be  in  condition  that  the  trees  can  be  set  more 
easily,  but  because  thoroughly  worked-down  soil  makes  marking 
off  of  the  land  much  easier  and  much  more  accurate. 

If  fall  planting  is  to  be  practiced,  it  is  better  for  the  soil  in 
most  cases,  especially  on  hill  land,  if  it  can  be  left  rough  after 
plowing.  If  it  is  worked  down  smooth  in  the  fall  there  is  likely 
to  be  more  or  less  injury  from  settling  down  the  hill  in  winter 
and  also  from  washing;  furthermore,  the  soil  will  not  work  so 
well  in  the  spring.  More  care  will  be  necessary  in  setting  the 
trees  if  the  ground  is  not  harrowed  down  thoroughly  in  the 
fall  when  planted,  but  they  can  be  set  in  this  way  and  the  addi- 
tional cost  is  not  great  enough  to  pay  for  working  the  soil  down 
in  the  fall  and  certainly  not  great  enough  to  pay  for  the  cost  of 
working  it  down  in  the  fall  and  breaking  it  again  in  the  spring. 
If  a  crop  is  to  be  grown  in  the  orchard  this  breaking  in  spring 
would  certainly  be  necessary,  since  the  ground  will  settle  much 
more  if  worked  down  in  the  fall  than  if  it  is  left  rough.  How- 
ever, under  some  conditions  it  will  be  nearly  impossible  to  get 


88  APPLE  CULTURE  §  4 

straight  rows  at  the  time  of  planting  if  the  soil  is  left  very 
rough.  In  this  case  a  light  harrow  should  be  used  that  will 
only  level  oJff  the  rough  places  without  working  the  ground  deep. 
In  an  old,  worn  soil  in  which  for  any  reason  the  trees  wiU 
not  respond  readily  to  a  small,  inexpensive  quantity  of  fertilizer 
applied  to  them,  it  may  in  some  cases  pay  to  summer  fallow, 
that  is,  to  let  a  growth  of  weeds  get  started  and  plow  them 
under  during  the  simimer,  letting  the  soil  stand  bare  until  cime 
to  plant  the  trees.  Such  practices  as  these  may  be  further 
desirable,  both  in  clay  soil  like  that  mentioned,  and  in  a  very 
poor,  sandy  soil  in  which  it  is  imperative  to  have  a  certain 
quantity  of  vegetable  matter  worked  into  the  soil  to  get  satis- 
factory growth. 

44.     Preparation  of  Nursery  Trees  for  Planting. — ^At 

time  of  planting,  a  certain  amount  of  pruning  will  be  necessary 
on  both  the  top  and  the  roots  of  the  trees.  Pruning  of  the 
top  is  required,  first,  for  the  reason  that  it  is  necessary  to 
reduce  the  evaporating  surface  of  the  tree,  since  the  ability  of 
the  plant  to  secure  water  has  been  reduced  by  the  breaking 
up  of  the  root  system  in  transplanting.  If  no  pruning  were 
done  the  leaf  surface  would  become  disproportionate  to  the  root 
system  and  consequently  evaporation  from  the  leaves  would 
be  much  more  rapid  than  absorption  by  the  roots.  Another 
consideration  that  requires  pruning  of  the  top  is  that  an 
unpruned  tree  is  much  more  likely  to  be  affected  by  strong 
winds  than  one  that  has  had  a  part  of  the  top  removed,  for  the 
roots,  not  being  well  established,  do  not  afford  a  secure  anchor- 
age and  the  tree  is  likely  to  be  blowri  to  an  inchned  position. 
If  the  top  is  reduced  there  will  be  less  leaf  surface  exposed  to 
the  wind,  hence  trees  so  treated  are  able  to  withstand  strong 
winds.  A  third  object  of  pruning  at  this  time  is  to  remove 
undesirable  limbs  and  leave  only  those  that  are  well  spaced  and 
that  will  give  a  mature  tree  of  the  desired  form. 

Small  1-year-old  trees  usually  require  nothing  more  than 
cutting  off  the  end,  and  if  the  wood  has  ripened  up  well  in  the 
nursery  even  this  may  not  be  necessary.  Large  1-year-old  trees 
should  be  cut  back  to  a  3-foot  or  a  3|-foot  length,  as  shown  at  a 


APPLE  CULTURE 


39 


in  Fig.  10;  2-year-old  trees,  however,  require  more  pruning.  In 
general,  they  should  be  cut  back  to  3^  or  4  feet,  superfluous 
limbs  removed,  and  the  limbs  that  are  allowed  to  remain  should 
be  cut  back  about  one-half  of  their  length.  In  Fig.  11  dotted 
lines  represent  the  approximate  points  at  which  cutting  should 
be  done  on  an  average  2-year-old  tree. 
After  deciding  what  limbs  are  desired  co 
make  a  symmetrical,  well-balanced  tree, 
all  others  should  be  removed. 

Regardless  of  whether  the  tree  is  1  or  2 
years  old,  the  necessary  pruning  on  the 
roots  is  to  cut  off  the  ragged  ends,  thus 
leaving  smooth  ends  instead  of  the 
broken  ones  left  by  the  tree  digger; 
and  if  there  is  a  thick  mass  of  fibrous 

roots,  to  cut  out  some  of  chem. 

In  the  case  of  trees  with  very 

long  roots,  it  is  entirely  desirable 

to  cut  them  back  so  that  a  hole 

not  more  than  12  or  15  inches 

square  will  be  large  enough  to 
jk**     set  them.     There  is  no  appar- 
ent advantage  in  having  very 

long  roots   on  the    trees  when 

they  are  set,  and  it  is  much 

better  to  have  short  roots  than 

to  have  long   roots  twisted  or 

bent  in  the  setting. 


Fig.  11 


Fig.  10 


45.     Dipping     of     Trees. 

Some  orchardists  dip  the  tops 

and  even  sometimes  the  roots 

of  nursery  trees  in  hme-sulphur 
solution  or  miscible  oil  just  before  planting.  The  object  of 
this  treatment  is  to  kill  all  San  Jose  scale  that  may  by  any  chance 
be  present,  also  woolly  aphis  or  other  injurious  insects  of  this 
class.  Experience  has  shown,  however,  that  it  is  dangerous  to 
dip  the  roots  in  lime-sulphur,  and  slight  injury  may  sometimes 


40  APPLE  CULTURE  §  4 

come  from  dipping  the  tops,  though  dipping  the  tops  down  to 
the  roots  may  be  practiced  without  serious  injury  if  care  is 
exercised.  The  Geneva,  New  York,  Experiment  Station  made 
thorough  tests  of  dipping  trees,  using  standard  Hme-sulphur, 
from  which  it  was  evident  that  even  wetting  the  roots  with 
hme-sulphur  caused  serious  injury.  Any  treatment  that  causes 
injury  that  can  be  detected  on  the  tree  is  certainly  to  be 
avoided,  for  slight  injury  that  is  not  detected  may  still  be 
enough  to  weaken  the  growth  of  the  tree,  and  if  there  is  any 
one  thing  that  the  orchardist  should  work  for  it  is  a  vigorous 
growth  of  the  tree  the  first  few  years.  It  is  safer  to  use  trees 
that  have  been  inspected  by  competent  inspectors  and  to  avoid 
the  processes  like  dipping  and  fumigation  as  far  as  possible. 

46.  Locating  Trees  in  Straight  Rows. — ^The  surest 
method  of  securing  absolutely  straight  rows  in  an  orchard  is 
to  have  a  surveyor  locate  every  tree,  and  this  is  sometimes 
practiced  in  sections  where  the  trees  are  sufficiently  long-lived 
and  profitable  and  where  the  question  of  appearance  is  of  suf- 
ficient importance  to  justify  such  an  expensive  method.  It  is 
likely  that  in  most  cases,  however,  the  expense  of  this  method 
will  be  prohibitive.  One  of  the  most  convenient  methods  of 
securing  straight  rows  in  square  planting  is  to  locate  the  out- 
side rows  around  the  field  carefully,  probably  by  the  aid  of  a 
surveyor  if  the  fences  are  not  known  to  be  on  the  line  or  if 
the  lines  of  the  field  are  not  definitely  known,  and  to  set  a 
row  of  stakes  with  one  stake  where  each  tree  is  to  be  located 
in  these  rows  around  the  field.  If  the  lines  of  the  field  are 
definitely  known  any  intelligent  man's  judgment  will  suggest 
methods  of  getting  these  stakes  in  the  right  place  around  the 
field.  Then  through  the  center  of  the  field  in  each  direction, 
another  row  of  stakes  is  set  as  shown  in  Fig.  12. 

With  a  field  laid  out  in  this  way,  there  are  always  two  stakes 
available  in  two  directions  for  determining  the  proper  location 
for  each  tree  in  the  orchard.  For  example,  the  proper  location 
for  a  tree  may  be  determined  by  sighting  across  stakes  as 
indicated  by  the  lines  in  Fig.  12.  The  usual  method  is  to  set 
a  peg  at  the  point  where  each  tree  should  go  as  determined 


4 


APPLE  CULTURE 


41. 


by  sighting;  but  since  the  stake  must  be  removed  when  the 
hole  for  the  tree  is  dug  a  planting  board  is  commonly  used  to 


• 

• 

• 

• 
• 

• 

' 

J     . 

• 

• 
• 

• 

•             1 

•' 

• 
• 

Fig.  12 


get  each  tree  in  its  proper  place.  In  Fig.  13  is  shown  a  planting 
board  by  means  of  which  a  tree  can  be  planted  exactly  where 
the  stake  originally  stood.     The  notch  of  the  board  is  fitted 


Fig.  13 

against  the  peg  that  represents  the  place  for  the  tree  and  then 
two  pegs  are  driven  into  the  ground  through  the  holes  in  the 
ends  of  the  board.  These  pegs  are  left  until  the  hole  for  the 
tree  is  dug,  and  when  the  tree  is  to  be  set  in  the  hole  the  board 

248—14 


42 


APPLE  CULTURE 


is  again  placed  on  the  pegs  so  that  the  holes  in  the  ends  pass 
over  these  pegs.  The  method  of  using  the  planting  board  is 
clearly  shown  in  Fig.  14. 

47.  A  cheaper  method  of  laying  out  an  orchard'  is  to  use 
a  team  and  some  form  of  plow,  probably  a  bull  tongue  in  most 
cases,  and  mark  off  the  rows  in  each  direction,  sighting  to  the 
stakes  that  have  been  previously  set  around  and  across  the 
planting  as  mentioned.     This  method  is  probably  as  often 


Fig.  14 

resorted  to  as  any  other.  It  is  also  possible  to  locate  the  trees 
without  using  either  the  system  of  marking  or  the  planting 
board  but  simply  by  sighting  to  stakes  in  each  direction  at  the 
time  the  tree  is  set.  This  method,  however,  is  not  so  accurate 
as  the  others,  especially  if  the  land  is  not  level. 

The  field  may  be  laid  off  with  a  plow  in  each  direction  by 
using  stakes  that  are  set  at  the  time  of  plowing.  That  is,  say 
an  orchardist  is  laying  off  a  planting  east  and  west,  the  first 
row  is  carefully  located  by  three  or  four  stakes  set  east  and 
west.  Then,  as  the  man  doing  the  plowing  passes  the  stake, 
he  measures  off  the  proper  distance  to  the  next  row  and  sets 


§  4  APPLE  CULTURE  43 

the  stake  over  to  it.  This  will  give  him  a  line  of  stakes  to  come 
back  on  in  making  the  next  row.  It  will  be  best  to  have  an 
assistant  to  help  set  the  first  end.  The  rows  are  located  in 
the  other  direction  in  the  same  way.  Although  this  may  not 
locate  the  trees  with  mathematical  precision,  under  most  con- 
ditions it  is  accurate  enough. 

48.  In  some  cases  the  trees  are  located  by  means  of  a  wire 
such  as  is  used  with  a  check-rower  com  planter.  A  row  is 
first  carefully  laid  out,  and  each  tree  in  the  row  located,  say 
east  and  west  at  each  end  of  the  field;  the  wire  should  then  be 
stretched  across  the  field  north  and  south  with  some  sort  of 
markers  on  it  so  spaced  that  each  marker  will  represent  the 
correct  position  for  a  tree.  The  place  for  each  tree  may  be 
marked  with  a  stake  or  a  hole  may  be  dug  before  the  wire  is 
moved. 

In  hilly  land  it  may  be  difficult  to  get  the  trees  in  straight 
rows  up  and  down  the  hill,  though  this  is  desirable  on  account 
of  the  appearance.  However,  in  all  cases  it  is  advisable  to  go 
around  the  hill  rather  than  over  it,  and  it  may  be  necessary  to 
set  the  trees  in  circles  around  the  hill  rather  than  in  straight 
rows  across  it.  In  this  case  the  contour  of  the  hill  will  generally 
determine  the  method  used  for  locating  the  trees. 

49.  Where  trees  are  set  by  the  hexagonal  system,  an  excel- 
lent way  to  locate  the  trees  and  get  them  in  straight  rows  is 
to  locate  the  trees  in  the  first  row  by  means  of  surveying 
instruments  or  some  other  accurate  method.  Then,  with  a 
large  triangle  of  wire,  the  length  of  each  side  of  which  is  the 
distance  apart  the  trees  are  desired,  the  other  trees  may  be 
located.  One  point  of  the  triangle  is  placed  at  the  first  tree 
in  the  first  row  and  one  at  the  second  tree  in  the  same  row, 
making  the  points  come  exactly  to  the  tree;  then  when  the 
triangle  is  drawn  out  and  held  level  the  other  point  is  at  the 
right  position  for  the  first  tree  of  the  second  row.  For  locating 
the  second  tree,  a  point  of  the  triangle  is  placed  at  the  second 
tree  in  the  first  row  and  a  point  at  the  third  tree  in  the  same 
row;  then  the  other  point  locates  the  second  tree  in  the  second 
row.     This,  of  course,  can  be  carried  on  throughout  the  orchard. 


44 


APPLE  CULTURE 


If  the  orchard  is  in  hilly  land,  the  stakes  used  for  locating 
the  trees  should  be  tall,  and  the  triangle  should  be  held  in 
a  horizontal  position  when  locations  for  trees  are  being 
determined. 

50.  Tools  Used  in  Planting.— The  tool  most  commonly 
used  in  planting  is  a  hght  spade.  If  the  soil  is  stony,  work  can 
be  done  more  rapidly  by  cutting  off  the  comers  of  the  spade 
as  shown  in  Fig.  15  (a) .  In  very  stony  land  a  mattock  or  grub- 
bing hoe  such  as  is  shown  in  (b) 
may  perhaps  be  a  better  tool  to  set 
trees  with  than  a  spade. 

Some  persons  advocate  blasting 
the  holes  for  trees.  A  crowbar  or 
other  heavy  iron  bar  is  used  to  make 
the  hole  about  3  feet  deep  and  a 
small  charge  of  dynamite,  usually 
half  a  stick,  is  exploded  in  the  hole; 
then  with  a  spade  a  hole  is  dug  for 
the  tree.  lb  is  claimed  that  such 
an  explosion  tends  to  break  up  any 
layer  of  hard  subsoil  that  may  be  in 
the  soil  and  to  favor  better  growth 
of  the  tree  roots.  A  great  many 
orchardists  report  good  results  from 
this  method,  but  it  has  not  been 
sufficiently  tested  by  accurate  ex- 
periments to  justify  positive  indorse- 
ment of  it.  There  is  reason  to 
believe  that  in  some  soils  it  will  give  good  results,  for  trees 
imiformly  make  a  better  growth  the  first  and  second  summers 
on  porous,  well-drained  soil  where  the  roots  can  go  deep  than 
they  do  on  soils  lacking  these  characteristics.  If  suitable  con- 
ditions can  be  produced  by  blasting  it  would  seem  desirable. 

51.  Handling  of  Trees. — ^At  the  time  of  setting  it  is 
important  to  have  enough  trees  on  hand  to  set  the  entire  plant- 
ing that  is  staked  off,  and  it  is  usually  desirable  to  take  trees 
enough  to  set  say  four  or  five  rows  and  heel  them  in  about  five 


Fig.  15 


§  4  APPLE  CULTURE  45 

rows  from  the  first  row  and  carry  this  on  throughout  the  plant- 
ing, so  that  the  trees  will  not  have  to  be  carried  a  long  distance 
during  the  planting  process.  In  very  large  plantings  it  is 
customary  to  have  the  trees  in  wagons  and  have  the  man  in 
the  wagon  throw  them  out  and  a  boy  carry  them  to  the  holes  as 
fast  as  the  men  can  set  them.  In  no  case  should  the  roots  of 
the  trees  be  left  exposed  to  the  air  until  they  become  dry.  It 
is  much  better  if  the  roots  of  the  trees  at  the  time  of  setting 
are  moist  enough  that  the  soil  will  stick  to  them.  If  only  one 
man  is  setting,  the  roots  of  not  more  than  ten  or  twleve  trees 
should  be  exposed  at  one  time  unless  weather  conditions  are 
very  favorable,  as  when  the  air  is  saturated  with  moisture. 
All  other  trees  should  be  carefully  heeled-in  by  the  method 
previously  mentioned.  Of  course,  they  need  not  be  heeled-in 
as  carefully  if  they  are  to  be  planted  within  a  few  hours  as  if 
they  are  to  stay  several  days  in  the  trench.  As  a  rule,  water 
is  used  around  the  roots  at  planting  time  in  only  very  small 
plantings.  If  the  soil  is  in  good  condition  with  reference  to 
moisture  and  the  planting  is  done  carefully,  the  use  of  water 
is  not  generally  necessary  or  even  desirable. 

In  very  few  cases  should  trees  be  set  any  deeper  than  they 
were  set  in  the  nru-sery.  In  a  very  porous,  warm  soil  it  may 
be  well  to  set  them  slightly  deeper,  but  deep  setting,  especially 
in  a  soil  that  tends  to  be  compact,  is  likely  to  break  the  ends 
of  the  roots.  Furthermore,  when  the  soil  is  so  cold  that  new 
roots  start  very  slowly  and  the  soil  is  not  so  well  supplied  with 
the  necessary  elements  of  plant-food,  deep  setting  is  not  to 
be  recommended.  Some  persons  practice  deep  setting  to  keep 
the  trees  from  being  blown  to  a  leaning  position,  but  this  is 
not  to  be  recommended,  for  if  the  top  of  the  tree  has  been  suf- 
ficiently pruned  and  the  tree  is  set  firmly  it  is  not  likely  to  be 
blown  to  a  leaning  position..  In  fact,  the  tree  will  probably 
become  braced  sooner  and  firmer  if  it  is  set  shallow,  for  under 
this  condition  new  roots  will  start  more  quickly  than  if  planted 
deep. 

In  setting  trees,  it  is  best  to  place  the  part  having  the  most 
branches  to  the  southwest  in  sections  where  there  is  trouble 
from  sun  scald  on  young  trees.     This  is  more  likely  to  give  a 


40  APPLE  CULTURE  §4 

shade  for  the  body  of  the  tree  against  the  southwest  sun  and 
thus  afford  some  protection  against  sun  scald  for  the  first  and 
second  winters. 

The  usual  procedure  in  setting  a  tree  is  to  grasp  it  with  one 
hand  and  hold  it  upright  in  the  position  it  is  to  occupy  per- 
manently, work  in  some  earth  with  a  spade  with  the  other 
hand  until  the  tree  is  firm  enough  to  stand  erect,  and  then 
throw  in  some  loose  earth  and  grasp  the  tree  and  pull  up  on 
it  slightly,  pressing  the  earth  Very  firmly  with  the  feet.  In 
some  cases  it  is  best  to  throw  a  spade  of  loose  earth  over  the 
pressed  earth  at  the  top  to  act  as  a  mulch  to  retain  the  moisture. 
Of  course,  this  process  of  setting  should  never  be  done  when 
the  soil  is  too  wet  to  work  if  the  best  results  are  expected. 
Especially  is  this  true  with  clay  soil  which  may  become  cemented 
around  the  tree. 


APPLE  CULTURE 

(PART  2) 


MANAGEMENT  OF  APPLE  ORCHARDS 


INTRODUCTIOIS 

1.  Immediately  after  the  establishment  of  an  apple  orchard 
the  question  of  the  management  of  the  property  comes  up  for 
consideration,  and  the  subject  is  one  to  which  the  owner  will 
do  well  to  give  his  best  thought  and  attention.  It  is,  of  course, 
true  that  some  orchards  are  failures  because  of  unsuitable  loca- 
tion or  of  improper  planting  or  of  choice  of  unsatisfactory 
varieties,  but,  undoubtedly,  most  orchard  failures  are  due  to 
poor  management.  In  this  Section  attention  is  given  to  the 
subjects  of  tillage,  pruning,  thinning,  fertilization,  and  the  reno- 
vation of  old  orchards.  The  first  four  subjects  pertain  to  the 
yearly  routine  in  all  orchards,  and  much  of  an  orchardist's 
success  depends  on  his  skill  in  carrying  out  these  operations. 
The  subject  of  the  renovation  of  old  orchards  is  of  import- 
ance in  this  connection,  for  the  reason  that  many  new  orchard 
plantings  are  put  out  on  farms  that  already  have  on  them  old 
orchards  in  a  more  or  less  neglected  and  run-down  condition. 
Apple-orchard  management  includes  also  the  subjects  of  spray- 
ing, harvesting,  marketing,  and  irrigating.  The  importance  of 
the  subjects  of  spraying,  harvesting,  and  marketing,  however, 
warrants  their  consideration  in  separate  Sections,  and  as  the 
subject  of  irrigating  of  apple  orchards  is  not  of  importance 
except  in  certain  restricted  localities,  it  also  will  be  considered 
in  a  separate  Section. 

COPYRIGHTED    BY    INTERNATIONAL    TEXTBOOK    COMPANY.       ALL    RIGHTS    RESERVED 

§5 


APPLE  CULTURE  .  §  5 


TILLAGE   OF  APPLE  ORCHARDS 


TILLAGE    OF    YOUNG    APPLE    ORCHARDS 

2.  Tillage  of  an  orchard  during  the  first  year  after  plant- 
ing the  trees  is  no  doubt  more  important  than  in  any  subse- 
quent year  in  the  history  of  the  orchard.  It  is  of  the 
greatest  importance  that  the  trees  have  a  good,  healthy  start 
and  tillage  the  first  year  is  favorable  to  a  prompt  and  vigor- 
ous growth  of  the  trees.  This  fact  will  be  more  evident  when 
it  is  considered  that  soil  is  cold  in  spring  and  that  it  slowly 
warms  up  to  a  good  depth.  Often  newly  transplanted  trees 
come  out  in  leaf  before  much  growth  begins.  Not  infrequently 
newly  transplanted  trees  leaf  out  well,  then  apparently  stand 
still  for  a  while  until  the  spring  or  early  siunmer  is  well 
advanced.  Usually  this  condition  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the 
beginning  of  the  root  growth  is  retarded  by  a  cold  soil.  The 
atmosphere  warms  up  more  rapidly  than  the  soil  and  starts 
the  buds  while  the  roots  below  are  comparatively  inactive. 
Early  and  frequent  cultivation  helps  to  warm  the  soil  to  a 
greater  depth  and  to  stimulate  root  growth.  In  order  to 
start  the  growth  of  the  root  system  when  growth  of  the  tree 
above  starts  early,  spring  plowing  is  desirable. 

3.  The  depth  of  spring  plowing  depends  largely  on  the 
character  of  the  soil.  In  loose  sandy  soils,  plowing  may  be 
shallow.  It  is  never  desirable  to  plow  much  deeper  than  the 
surface  soil,  for  turning  up  raw  unweathered  subsoil  leaves  an 
unsatisfactory  surface  for  subsequent  tillage.  Land  that  has 
not  previously  been  worked  to  sufficient  depth  should  not  be 
plowed  deep  suddenly.  It  is  best  to  increase  the  depth  of 
the  soil  gradually  by  plowing  a  Uttle  deeper  each  year. 

Care  should  be  taken  never  to  plow  deep  enough  to  injure 
the  roots  of  the  yotmg  trees.  In  certain  soils  and  localities, 
trees  root  deep  and  deep  plowing  may  be  safe,  but  in  other 
soils  shallow  root  growth  is  made  and  deep  plowing  is  not 
permissible.     In  this  case  it  may  be  advisable   to   plow  the 


§  5  APPLE  CULTURE  3 

land  deeper  midway  between  the  rows  beyond  the  spread  of 
the  root  system,  and  more  shallow  adjacent  to  the  tree  row 
where  there  is  danger  of  cutting  the  tree  roots. 

4.  After  plowing  in  spring,  shallow  tillage  should  be  main- 
tained throughout  the  growing  season.  This  work  should 
be  done  with  the  type  of  harrow  that  will  best  maintain  a 
good  dust  mulch.  A  crust  should  never  be  allowed  to  form 
on  the  soil.  If  prolonged  rains  fall  on  a  moderately  heavy 
soil  and  weeds  get  a  start  it  may  be  necessary  to  use  a  disk  or 
cutaway  harrow  to  break  the  surface.  In  mellow  soils,  a 
spring  tooth  or  an  Acme  harrow,  which  merely  pulverize  the 
surface,  may  be  adequate. 

The  time  to  cease  tillage  is  a  question  on  which  opinions 
differ.  Some  orchardists  advocate  ceasing  tillage  in  mid- 
summer in  order  to  give  the  trees  ample  time  to  ripen  their 
wood  for  winter;  others  advocate  continuing  tillage  until  the 
close  of  the  simimer.  No  definite  date  can  be  given  at  which 
tillage  should  stop,  for  it  varies  with  the  character  of  the  soil, 
the  amoimt  of  rainfall  during  the  given  season,  the  rapidity  of 
growth  of  the  trees,  and  to  a  marked  degree  with  the  charac-. 
ter  of  the  winter  that  prevails  in  the  locality.  There  is  some 
danger  of  winter-killing  if  the  trees  go  into  winter  in  a  soft, 
sappy  condition.  In  Canada  and  the  northern  part  of  the 
United  States,  where  severe  winters  prevail,  tillage  should 
cease  early,  perhaps  in  midsummer,  in  order  to  give  time  for 
a  thorough  ripening  of  the  wood  before  cold  weather  comes 
on.  In  sections  where  winters  are  mild  or  where,  with  a  given 
variety,  winter  injury  is  not  usual,  tillage  may  continue  to 
a  much  later  date,  perhaps  until  early  autumn.  In  certain 
soils,  particularly  those  that  are  dry,  wann,  light,  and  not 
very  fertile,  trees  tend  to  ripen  their  wood  earlier  than  in  very 
rich  soils  that  hold  a  large  quantity  of  capillary  moistiire. 
If  in  a  given  season  young  trees  are  making  an  abnormally 
succulent  growth,  tillage  may  be  allowed  to  wane  early  in  the 
season.  In  a  season  when  slow,  weak  growth  is  being  made, 
or  where  summer  droughts  prevail,  tillage  to  save  moisture 
may  be  continued  until  early  autumn. 


APPLE  CULTURE  §  5 


TILLAGE    OP    BEARING    APPLE    ORCHARDS 

5.  Most  orchardists  agree  that  young  trees  should  have 
thorough  tillage  until  they  reach  bearing  age,  but  the  question 
of  the  tillage  of  bearing  orchards  is  one  on  which  there  is  less 
uniform  agreement  of  opinion.  It  is  doubtless  true,  how- 
ever, that  the  majority  of  orchardists  agree  that  at  least  some 
tillage  should  be  maintained  throughout  the  life  of  the  orchard. 

As  a  rule,  bearing  apple  orchards  should  be  plowed  in  early 
spring  to  warm  up  the -soil  and  to  facilitate  the  storage  of 
moisture  from  spring  rains  in  the  subsoil  below.  As  in  young 
orchards,  the  depth  of  this  plowing  depends  on  the  character 
of  the  soil  and  the  depth  of  root  growth  of  the  trees.  Even 
greater  care  should  be  taken  not  to  injure  the  roots  of  bearing 
trees  than  is  needed  in  the  case  of  young  trees.  The  repair 
of  the  injury  to  a  root  on  a  tree  of  bearing  age  is  relatively 
slower  than  in  the  case  of  a  young  tree.  Feeding  roots  of 
bearing  trees  become  much  more  numerous  and  they  spread 
much  more  uniformly  throughout  the  soil  than  in  the  case  of 
young  trees.  The  deeper  the  plowing,  the  better,  provided  it 
does  not  go  below  the  top  soil  or  injure  the  root  system  of  the 
tree. 

6.  Shallow  surface  tillage  should  be  maintained  throughout 
the  season  by  means  of  harrows  or  other  stirring  implements. 
As  a  rule,  there  is  less  tendency  for  a  soil  in  similar  condition 
to  crust  or  bake  hard  under  the  shade  of  large  trees  and  there 
is  less  tendency  for  weed  growth  than  in  the  open  sunlight 
between  young  trees  that  do  not  shade  the  groimd.  This, 
however,  should  not  lead  the  grower  to  believe  that  tillage 
may  be  less  frequent  or  may  justifiably  be  neglected  in  bear- 
ing orchards. 

7.  As  trees  reach  bearing  age,  the  question  of  what  time 
during  the  sunpner  to  cease  tillage  probably  becomes  more 
important  than  is  the  case  with  trees  before  they  reach  bear- 
ing age.  A  yoimg  tree  is  tilled  to  get  strong,  vigorous  wood 
growth,  and  the  question  of  its  immediate  fruiting  demands  very 
little  consideration.     With  the  old  tree,  the  grower  must  take 


§  5  APPLE  CULTURE  5 

into  consideration  not  only  a  maintenance  of  wood  growth  but 
also  the  inducing  of  fruit-bud  formation.  It  will  be  remem- 
bered that  excessive  wood  growth  opposes  the  formation  of  fruit 
buds,  that  is,  the  reproductive  process  of  the  tree.  If  an 
orchard  of  bearing  age  is  making  such  an  abundant  wood 
growth  that  it  bears  fruit  sparingly,  tillage  should  be  so 
adjusted  as  to  check  this  wood  growth  to  some  degree  and  to 
favor  the  setting  of  fruit  buds.  Frequently  an  orchard  that 
is  making  a  rampant  growth  may  be  thrown  into  bearing  by 
ceasing  tillage  early  in  the  season.  On  the  other  hand,  if  an 
orchard  has  fully  established  the  bearing  habit  and  is  set- 
ting fruit  abundantly,  thorough  tillage  should  be  given  in  order 
to  enable  the  tree  to  carry  and  mature  this  fruit  crop.  In 
general  it  may  be  said  that  the  richer  and  more  drought  resist- 
ant the  soil,  the  earlier  may  tillage  cease;  the  poorer  or  dryer 
the  soil,  the  later  may  tillage  be  kept  up. 

8.  Another  important  consideration  is  the  dormant  or 
rest  period  of  the  tree.  In  certain  sections,  fruit  trees  may 
be  injured  by  their  fruit  buds  starting  into  growth  in  late 
winter  or  too  early  in  spring,  and  as  a  result  of  this  premature 
growth  being  injured  by  subsequent  cold.  It  is  desirable  to 
hold  the  buds  of  fruit  trees. donnant  in  spring  until  danger  of 
injury  from  frost  is  past.  It  has  been  determined  that  the 
donnant  period  of  a  tree  is  of  fairly  uniform  duration,  conse- 
quently it  may  be  said  that  as  a  general  rule  the  earlier  it 
becomes  dormant  in  the  fall,  the  earlier  will  it  tend  to  emerge 
from  the  dormant  condition  in  spring;  the  later  it  goes  into 
the  dormant  condition  in  autumn,  the  later  will  it  tend  to  wake 
from  its  winter  sleep  and  begin  spring  growth.  For  this  rea- 
son, in  sections  where  trees  suffer  from  the  swelling  of  their 
buds  in  late  winter,  or  where  they  bloom  out  so  early  in  spring 
as  to  be  subject  to  injury  from  late  frosts,  it  is  well  to  pro- 
long the  growing  season  as  late  the  previous  fall  as  may  be 
done  without  danger  of  their  growing  into  winter  in  an  exces- 
sively succulent  condition. 

9.  Where  severe  winter  climates  prevail,  more  precau- 
tions should  be  taken  for  the  ripening  of  the  wood  in  autumn 


6  APPLE  CULTURE  §  5 

than  in  a  milder  climate,  and  it  is  also  true  that  in  the  severe 
climates  there  is  less  need  of  prolonging  the  dormant  period, 
because  there  is  less  danger  of  trees  starting  growth  imtil 
settled  spring  conditions  become  well  established.  In  mild 
climates,  however,  this  tendency  of  fruit  buds  to  swell  and 
grow  in  late  winter  or  to  blossom  too  early  in  spring  is  pro- 
nounced, and  for  this  reason  it  is  considered  good  practice 
to  induce  the  tree  to  carry  its  leaves  in  the  fall  until  hard 
frosts  actually  begin.  In  such  sections  there  is  little  danger 
of  forcing  the  trees  into  winter  in  a  too  succulent  condition, 
hence  the  grower  need  not  take  much  thought  for  the  autumn 
ripening  in  the  wood.  In  mild  climates,  a  dormant  tree  is 
rarely  winter-injured,  even  though  it  carries  its  leaves  up  to 
the  beginning  of  winter. 

CATCH    CROPS 

10.  Catch  crops  are  extensively  grown  in  orchards,  either 
for  enriching  the  soil  or  for  the  revenue  that  may  be  derived 
from  them.  Usually  they  are  annual  crops  such  as  may  be 
grown  and  cultivated  without  interfering  with  the  normal 
culture  that  should  be  given  to  orchard  soil  in  accordance 
with  the  preceding  paragraphs,  and  they  are  most  commonly 
grown  while  the  trees  are  young  and  before  they  reach  bearing 
age.  While  the  fruit  trees  are  small  and  do  not  fully  occupy 
the  entire  area  in  the  orchard,  a  part  of  the  space  between  the 
rows  may  often  profitably  be  given  to  incidental  crops  that 
mature  in  a  short  period.  Furthermore,  space  between  the 
rows  in  an  orchard  is  more  valuable  for  the  catch  crops  them- 
selves during  the  early  years  than  it  is  later  when  the  trees 
have  become  large  enough  to  shade  the  ground.  An  orchard 
is  a  long-time  investment,  since  it  does  not  begin  to  yield 
returns  directly  until  the  trees  come  into  good  bearing.  Often 
it  is  very  helpfiil  to  grow  catch  crops  annually  for  a  time,  in 
order  that  the  land  may  bring  some  return  before  the  orchard 
itself  begins  to  yield  fruit. 

11.  Catch  crops  may  be  grown  expressly  for  the  revenue 
they  yield,  irrespective  of  their  relation  to  the  good  of  the  trees. 


§  5  APPLE  CULTURE  7 

It  is  highly  desirable,  however,  to  exclude  catch  crops  of  such 
character  as  may  in  any  way  injtire  the  fruit  trees.  The 
desirability  of  growing  catch  crops  for  revenue  depends  some- 
what on  a  number  of  factors.  One  of  these  is  the  price  of  the 
land.  Where  land  values  are  high,  it  is  often  desirable  to 
produce  catch  crops  that  will  return  an  annual  income  on  the 
investment,  but  where  land  values  are  comparatively  low  the 
owner  may  be  able  to  wait  for  the  orchard  to  come  into  bearing 
without  depending  on  the  revenue  from  catch  crops.  Another 
factor  is  the  quality  of  the  soil.  If  the  soil  in  the  orchard 
is  poor  and  thin  and  the  orchard  trees  need  all  the  available 
plant-food  in  it,  catch  crops  should  not  be  grown  unless  the 
plant-food  that  they  remove  from  the  soil  can  be  returned  in 
the  form  of  fertilizer.  Where  soils  are  rich,  catch  crops  often 
may  be  grown  luitil  the  orchard  reaches  bearing  age  without 
in  any  way  injuring  the  future,  productiveness  of  the  orchard 
itself.  As  a  rule,  better  ciiltivation  will  be  given  to  an  orchard 
in  which  some  valuable  catch  crop  is  being  grown  between 
the  trees  than  when  no  such  crop  is  grown.  It  is  not  wise, 
however,  to  place  too  much  stress  on  the  annual  income  from 
a  catch  crop  if  its  production  opposes  in  any  way  the  future 
development  of  the  orchard. 

12.  Catch  crops  may  contribute  directly  or  indirectly 
to  the  fertility  of  the  orchard  even  on  poor  soils.  If  an  orchard 
soil  is  light,  sandy,  and  low  in  plant-food  but  otherwise  well 
adapted  Xo  the  growing  of  vegetables  or  small  fruits,  the  owner 
may  be  enabled  to  put  fertilizer  on  the  orchard  by  using  the 
revenue  derived  from  these  crops  for  the  purchase  of  fertil- 
izers, which  he  could  not  afford  to  apply  if  there  were  no  imme- 
diate income  from  the  orchard  land.  Under  certain  circum- 
stances, it  is  possible  to  build  up  the  fertility  of  an  orchard 
soil  before  the  fruit  trees  come  into  bearing  by  the  production 
of  catch  crops  that  justify  expenditure  for  fertilization  and 
soil  improvement.  This  is  an  example  of  indirect  improvement 
of  the  soil  by  growing  catch  crops.  Certain  catch  crops, 
particularly  the  legumes,  may  be  grown  so  as  to  enrich  the 
soil  in  nitrogen  and  perhaps  improve  its  physical  condition 


8  APPLE  CULTURE  §5 

as  well.  This  is  direct  improvement  of  the  soil  by  means  of 
catch  crops.  Any  building  up  of  soil  made  possible  by  the 
growing  of  temporary  crops  leaves  the  soil  in  just  that  much 
better  condition  when  the  trees  come  into  bearing  and  call 
for  a  large  supply  of  plant-food. 

13.  Under  certain  conditions,  catch  crops  may  be  grown 
for  soil  improvement  with  no  idea  of  adding  plant-food  to  it. 
For  example,  in  newly  cleared  lands,  if  the  soil  is  rich,  corn 
crops  are  frequently  grown  between  the  trees  in  young  orchards 
to  help  subdue  the  stumps  of  the  forest  trees  and  sprouts  that 
spring  from  them.  The  com  crop  helps  to  pay  for  careful 
cultivation  of  the  land  and  for  the  labor  involved  in  cuttinj,^ 
out  the  sprouts  and  its  shade  may  reduce  the  vigor  of  sprouts 
that  do  grow.  Almost  any  cultivated  crop  in  a  new  soil  helps 
to  subdue  the  soil  and  to  bring  it  to  a  good  state  of  tilth.  It 
is  also  true  that  soils  that  wash  may  be  held  in  place  by 
certain  types  of  catch  crops. 

14.  The  grains  used  as  catch  crops  are  usually  those  that 
pass  the  winter  in  the  growing  state,  like  winter  wheat  or  rye. 
A  grain  crop  should  rarely,  if  ever,  be  allowed  to  mature  its 
seed  in  the  orchard.  Its  direct  purpose  as  a  crop  should  be 
that  of  winter  or  spring  pasture  for  small  stock  such  as  pigs, 
lambs,  or  poultry.  It  may  benefit  the  orchard  land  by  pre- 
venting erosion  of  the  soil,  by  taking  up  readily  available 
plant-food  that  otherwise  might  wash  off  in  abundant  rains 
or  be  leached  down  into  the  subsoil  below,  by  shading  the  soil, 
by  preventing  the  heaving  of  the  soil  by  frosts,  and  by  adding 
humus  to  the  soil  when  the  remnants  of  the  crop  are  plowed 
under  in  the  spring.  Where  grains  are  thus  employed,  they 
are  usually  sown  early  in  the  fall  to  get  good  growth  in  order 
to  cover  the  land  well  and  hold  it  in  place  during  the  winter. 
They  are  usually  allowed  to  stand  in  spring  until  they  have 
made  an  abundant  leaf  growth,  and  are  then  turned  under  to 
add  humus  to  the  soil.  Meantime  they  may  have  served  a 
valuable  purpose  as  a  pasture  crop  during  the  fall  and  early 
spring.  Care  should  be  taken,  however,  in  pasturing  orchards 
during  wet  times,  even  with  small  animals,  as  the  soil  may  be 


§  5  APPLE  CULTURE  9 

badly  puddled  by  their  tramping.  It  should  also  be  further 
borne  in  mind  that  certain  animals  if  pastured  in  the  orchard 
may  injure  fruit  trees.  Goats,  mature  sheep,  and  colts  often 
injure  the  trees  if  allowed  to  graze  among  them.  A  large 
number  of  hogs  pastured  on  a  small  area  may  do  injury  to  the 
tree  trunks  by  constantly  rubbing  the  bark.  As  a  rule,  how- 
ever, the  orchard  crops  mentioned  may  be  grown  profitably  for 
pasturage,  provided  care  and  judgment  are  used  with  respect 
to  the  character  and  number  of  animals  pastured. 

15.  Potatoes  are  often  a  profitable  catch  crop  in  orchards 
wherever  the  soil  is  suited  to  their  production.  The  same 
plowing,  handling,  and  tilling  of  the  soil  that  the  potatoes 
need  is  adapted  also  to  the  needs  of  the  fruit  trees  themselves. 
Potatoes  are  a  low-growing  crop  and  there  is  less  danger  of 
their  interfering  with  the  growth  of  the  trees  than  would  be 
the  case  with  a  taller-growing  crop  like  com,  which  may  shade 
young  fruit  trees  if  planted  too  close  to  them.  Almost  any  kind 
of  garden  vegetable  that  admits  of  good  cultivation  may  be 
grown  in  a  young  orchard  provided  the  soil  is  rich  enough. 

16.  Melons  are  often  grown  with  success  in  young  orchards. 
They  draw  somewhat  heavily  on  plant-food,  however,  par- 
ticularly potash,  and  for  this  reason  their  planting  is  inadvisa- 
ble in  thin  soils  unless  fertilizer  is  applied. 

The  small  fruits  generally  constitute  an  important  catch 
crop  for  orchards.  Strawberries  are  low  growing  and  do  not 
compete  to  an  undesirable  degree  with  the  fruit  frees.  Further- 
more, as  a  rule,  clean  cultivation  is  given  to  strawberries  through 
the  summer  and  they  are  mulched  in  winter,  both  of  which 
are  favorable  to  the  best  development  of  the  orchard.  If 
strawberries  are  grown,  however,  plants  should  be  carefully 
renewed  by  cutlivation  between  the  rows  each  season.  Old, 
neglected  strawberry  plantings  overgrown  with  weeds  are  a 
menace  to  an  orchard.  Blackberries,  on  account  of  their 
rooting  habit,  loosen  orchard  soils  and  frequently  leave  the 
land  after  a  few  years  in  better  condition  for  fruit  trees  than  it 
was  before  the  blackberries  were  planted.  Raspberries  may 
be  grown,  but  they  are  somewhat  objectionable  for  the  reason 


10  APPLE  CULTURE  §5 

that  the  raspberry  is  subject  to  crown  gall,  which  frequently 
attacks  fruit  trees.  In  sections  where  this  disease  is  common, 
the  planting  of  raspberries  in  the  orchard  is,  for  that  reason, 
to  be  avoided. 

COVER    CROPS 

17.  Cover  crops  include,  in  general,  those  crops  which  are 
grown  for  the  improvement  of  orchard  soil,  or  for  its  protec- 
tion at  times.  Cover  crops  are,  in  the  main,  distinguished  from 
catch  crops  in  that  the  latter  usually  are  grown  to  yield  a 
direct  revenue,  although,  as  pointed  out  in  the  preceding  pages, 
this  is  not  always  the  case.  Cover  crops,  on  the  other  hand, 
are  more  frequently  employed  for  the  benefit  of  the  orchard 
soil.  Catch  crops  are  usually  cultivated  crops;  cover  crops 
are  more  frequently  sowed  crops. 

Cover  crops  may  be  employed  to  check  wood  growth  of 
trees  and  throw  them  into  bearing,  to  prevent  leaching  of 
the  soil  fertility,  to  prevent  soil  washing,  to  add  himius'or 
nitrogen  to  the  soil,  or  to  smother  sprouts  on  newly  cleared 
land.  Attention  has  elsewhere  been  called  to  the  fact  that 
fruit  trees  sometimes  may  run  to  wood  growth  rather  than  to 
fruit  production.  Cover  crops  are  sometimes  employed  in 
rampant-growing  young  orchards  to  check  their  growth  and 
throw  them  into  bearing.  The  formation  of  fruit  buds  usually 
begins  in  the  early  part  of  the  summer.  For  that  reason  cover 
crops  to  check  wood  growth  and  stimulate  the  development 
of  fruit  buds  are  usually  sown  in  May  or  June.  Cowpeas  are 
often  used  as  cover  crops  in  the  South  and  field  peas  or 
vetches  for  a  similar  purpose  in  the  North.  All  of  these  are 
leguminous  crops  and  serve  the  purpose  of  adding  nitrogen 
to  the  soil.  On  deep,  rich  porous  soils  orchards  are  sometimes 
even  seeded  down  to  clover  for  a  year  or  two  to  throw  them 
into  bearing.  On  certain  soils  this  may  be  done  with  success. 
Even  grasses  are  sometimes  employed  for  a  season,  but  the 
grower  should  not  be  deceived  into  believing  that,  since  a 
cover  crop  may  throw  an  orchard  into  bearing,  the  orchard 
should  remain  under  this  same  cover  crop  indefinitely.  Not 
infrequently  a   season's   cropping  will   throw   the   trees  into 


§5  APPLE  CULTURE  11 

bearing  and  the  combined  effects  of  the  cover  crop  and  the  pro- 
duction of  a  fruit  crop  that  follows  may  check  the  growth  of 
the  trees  in  the  orchard.  Once  a  bearing  habit  is  established, 
it  is  usually  best  to  resume  cultivation  and  in  most  cases  the 
trees  will  no  longer  run  to  excessive  wood  growth. 

18.  Only  a  part  of  the  plant-food  existing  in  the  soil  is 
ever  available  or  soluble  in  water  at  any  given  time.  Addi- 
tional plant-food,  however,  is  rendered  available  from  year  to 
year.  This  should  be  saved  in  the  soil  or  used  for  the  pro- 
duction of  some  useful  crop;  otherwise,  it  may  be  carried  off 
largely  over  the  surface  by  washing  rains,  or  it  may  leach  down- 
wards by  the  settling  of  water  in  the  soil,  where  it  will  remain 
out  of  reach  of  the  roots  of  the  fruit  trees.  While  fruit  trees 
are  young  and  have  very  limited  spread  of  root  system,  a  bare 
tilled  orchard  soil  may  lose  much  of  its  available  plant -food. 
If  cover  crops  are  grown  they  will  use  this  plant-food  as  it 
becomes  available,  and  it  may  be  returned  to  the  soil  by  plow- 
ing these  crops  under  or  by  pasturing  them.  Furthermore, 
the  addition  of  organic  matter  that  resiilts  from  plowing  such 
cover  crops  under  makes  the  soil  more  retentive  of  valuable 
plant -food,  for  it  forms  a  sort  of  a  screen  in  the  soil  that  pre- 
vents waste  of  plant-food  by  leaching.  For  this  purpose  the 
grower  may  apply  either  grain  crops  as  a  winter  cover  or 
legumes  as  a  summer  cover.  The  same  crops  that  prevent 
leaching  of  plant -food  may  also  serve  the  purpose  of  prevent- 
ing erosion  of  the  soil.  Soils  that  wash  badly  should  never 
be  allowed  to  lie  bare,  except  while  cultivation  is  going  on. 
All  cover  crops  turned  under  perform  the  additional  ofhce  of 
adding  humus  to  the  soil  and  the  leguminous  cover  crops  add 
nitrogen  as  well. 

19.  Time  of  Sowing  Cover  Crops. — If  a  cover  crop  is 
being  grown  for  the  ptupose  of  throwing  an  orchard  into  bear- 
ing or  for  other  reasons  that  permit  the  use  of  a  full  season  crop, 
the  time  of  sowing  will  be  the  same  as  when  the  crop  is  grown 
outside  of  the  orchard.  The  cases  mentioned  are,  however, 
exceptional,  and,  as  a  rule,  it  is  best  to  grow  such  cover  crops 
as  will  not  conflict  with  the  cultivation  of  the  orchard  during 

248—15 


12  APPLE  CULTURE  §  5 

the  early  part  of  the  season.  Toward  the  southern  part  of 
the  United  States,  cultivation  may  continue  until  the  first  of 
July,  and  there  will  yet  be  time  to  grow  a  crop  of  cowpeas, 
one  of  the  most  important  cover  crops  for  the  Southern  States. 
Vetches,  wheat,  or  rye  should  be  sown  early  enough  in  the 
fall  so  as  to  secure  a  good  cover  for  the  ground  for  winter,  or 
to  make  sufficient  growth  to  afford  good  winter  pasture,  if 
desired.  The  farm  system  employed  and  the  use  to  which 
cover  crops  are  to  be  put  will  help  to  determine  the  time  of 
planting  each.  For  example,  one  successful  orchardist  uses 
rye  in  a  part  of  his  orchard  for  autumn,  winter,  and  early 
spring  pasture  for  young  hogs.  This  is  followed  by  oats  in 
another  portion,  or  by  rape,  which  is  not  pastured  until  June. 
Cowpeas  are  then  put  in  late  in  June  or  early  July  to  furnish 
late  simimer  and  early  autumn  pasture.  In  this  way  all  the 
land  in  the  orchard  is  gotten  over  on  rotation,  with  cover  crops 
arranged  to  form  the  best  possible  succession  of  feed  for  hog 
pasture.  With  such  a  judicious  plan  of  rotation  cover  crops 
may  serve  a  very  valuable  purpose  on  the  farm  outside  of  their 
relation  to  the  orchard  soil  itself. 

20.  Time  to  Plow  Cover  Crops  Under. — ^As  a  rule, 
cover  crops  should  lie  on  the  ground  through  the  winter  and 
be  plowed  under  when  cultivation  begins  in  spring.  Even 
the  legumes  will  lose  very  little  of  their  plant-food  if  allowed 
thus  to  lie  on  the  soil,  and  any  loss  by  decomposition  of  the 
plants  will  be  more  than  compensated  for  by  the  shade  and 
cover  afforded  to  the  soil.  If  green  cover  crops  are  used,  they 
should  be  plowed  under  at  least  before  they  go  to  seed  and 
before  the  spring  weather  is  very  far  advanced.  It  is  unwise 
to  allow  a  cover  crop  to  lie  in  an  orchard  until  summer  and 
then  suddenly  plow  the  crop  under  and  begin  tillage.  Such 
a  procedure  is  likely  to  induce  late  growth  in  the  trees.  Further- 
more, any  root  pruning  that  results  from  the  plowing  may  be 
very  injurious  to  the  trees  in  midsummer;  although  they  may 
not  be  injured  at  all  by  a  similar  root  pruning  in  early  spring 
while  dormant.  Cutting  off  roots  in  midsummer  when  the  trees 
are  in  full  leaf  and  hence  are  calHng  for  a  maximum  supply 


§  5  APPLE  CULTURE  13 

of  water  may  have  the  same  effect  as  severe  drought,  but 
root  pruning  by  plowing  in  spring  when  the  tree  is  dormant, 
if  judicious,  may  not  prove  injurious  in  any  way.  As  a  rule, 
it  is  not  wise  to  plow  orchards  in  autumn  in  sections  where 
deep  freezing  of  the  soil  prevails.  Toward  the  south,  however, 
autumn  or  even  winter  plowing  may  be  carried  on  successfully 
whenever  the  soil  is  in  condition  to  be  worked.  For  this  rea- 
son, spring  turning  under  of  cover  crops  is  advised  for  the 
North,  but  they  may,  in  regions  of  mild  winter,  be  plowed 
under  in  the  fall  or  even  in  winter,  if  necessary. 

21.  Leguminous  Cover  Crops. — The  clovers,  cowpeas, 
field  peas,  soybeans,  garden  beans,  and  the  vetches  are  satis- 
factory cover  crops  in  sections  that  are  adapted  to  their  cul- 
ture, and  since  they  are  leguminous  plants  they  have  the  addi- 
tional advantage  of  adding  nitrogen  to  the  soil.  If  the  entire 
crop  produced  is  turned  under  or  is  pastured  on  the  ground 
to  pigs  before  turning  under,  a  much  larger  supply  of 
nitrogen  will  be  added  to  the  soil  than  the  plants  take  from 
it.  If  these  crops  are  grown,  harvested,  and  removed  from 
the  soil,  their  roots  and  stubble  may  not  return  as  much 
nitrogen  as  was  drawn  from  the  soil  in  their  production,  but 
these  legumes  have,  nevertheless,  the  effect  of  mellowing  and 
flocculating  the  soil.  They  root  deeply  and  leave  the  soil  in 
most  excellent  condition  for  subsequent  tillage.  For  improv- 
ing either  the  fertility  or  the  structure  of  the  soil  they  are 
regarded  as  the  most  valuable  cover  crops  for  orchards.  Which 
to  choose  depends  largely  on  the  location,  type  of  soil,  and 
also  the  purpose  to  which  the  crop  may  be  put,  that  is,  whether 
it  is  to  be  harvested  or  pastured.  In  the  southern  part  of  the 
United  States  the  cowpea  is  the  one  great  orchard  cover  crop, 
but  in  the  northern  part  where  the  climatic  conditions  are 
not  suitable  for  growing  cowpeas,  field  peas  are  extensively 
grown.  Either  of  these  crops  fvirnishes  excellent  pasturage 
for  small  stock,  and  usually  it  is  more  profitable  to  pasture 
them  and  then  turn  the  stubble  under  than  it  is  to  turn  the 
entire  crop  under.  If  pastured,  a  large  part  of  the  crop  is 
returned  to  the  soil  in  the  form  of  manure.     In  the  South  the 


14  APPLE  CULTURE  §  5 

soybean  is  a  more  abundant  seed  producer  than  the  cowpea, 
and  where  feed  for  hogs  or  for  poultry  is  desired,  the  soybean, 
perhaps,  comes  nearer  to  meeting  the  requirement  than  the 
cowpea.  Any  of  the  legumes  mentioned  are  suitable  for  hay, 
and  where  it  is  desirable  to  get  a  hay  crop  from  the  orchard 
soil,  any  of  them  may  be  grown  for  this  purpose,  although 
clovers  and  cowpea  usually  produce  better  hay  crops  than 
the  others.  The  common  white  bean,  or  navy  bean,  although 
sometimes  cultivated  in  orchards,  is  probably  the  least 
valuable  to  the  orchard  of  any  of  the  legumes  mentioned, 
although  it  undoubtedly  adds  more  nitrogen  to  the  soil 
than  is  removed  from  it  by  the  crop  unless  the  entire  plant 
is  harvested.  The  farmer  considers  it  harder  on  the  soil  than 
the  other  legumes,  but  in  some  districts,  especially  in  the 
North,  the  bean  is  a  very  profitable  farm  crop  and  may  con- 
sequently pay  for  applying  fertilizer  or  organic  matter  to  the 
orchard. 

22.  Non-Leguminous  Cover  Crops. — ^Among  the  non- 
leguminous  cover  crops  that  are  sometimes  used  for  orchards, 
buckwheat,  rye,  winter  wheat,  and  barley  are  probably  most 
commonly  used.  Some  orchardists  have  used  oats,  but  the 
best  authorities  regard  them  as  objectionable  on  account  of 
the  fact  that  they  are  said  to  be  heavy  feeders  and  hence  take 
large  quantities  of  plant-food  from  the  soil,  and  furthermore 
they  use  large  quantities  of  water  and  consequently  are  likely 
to  leave  the  soil  too  dry  for  the  trees. 


SOD    CULTURE 

23.  Sod  Culture  is  a  term  adopted  in  somewhat  recent 
years,  and  signifies  that  the  soil  in  the  orchard  is  not  culti- 
vated but  is  permanently  seeded  to  grass,  clover,  or  other 
sod  crops  that  will  maintain  themselves  and  that  the  growth 
produced  remains  to  die  down  on  the  ground  or  is  cut  and 
allowed  to  lie,  thus  forming  a  mulch.  It  should  be  distin- 
guished from  simply  maintaining  the  orchard  in  grass  that 
is  to  be  mowed  for  hay  or  pastured  to  stock,  by  the  fact  that 


§  5  APPLE  CULTURE  15 

under  the  former  system  whatever  the  sod  crop  produces  in 
the  way  of  new  growth  each  year  is  allowed  to  remain  on  the 
orchard  soil  to  make  an  ever-increasing  mulch  and  to  add 
humus  to  the  soil.  On  certain  soils  and  in  certain  localities, 
orchards  have  proved  profitable  when  handled  in  this  manner. 

24.  Advantages  of  Sod  Culture. — Some  of  the  objects 
sought  in  sod  culture  are:  to  prevent  erosion  of  the  soil,  espe- 
cially on  steep  slopes;  to  avoid  the  labor  and  expense  of  soil 
tillage;  to  avoid  the  danger  of  injiny  to  the  roots  by  plow- 
ing and  tillage  in  soils  where  the  trees  root  very  near  the 
surface ;  to  retain  soluble  plant-food  near  the  surface  in  soils 
that  leach  badly;  and  to  maintain  a  cool  cover  in  soils  that 
dry  out  or  heat  up  badly  during  summer. 

It  is  probable  that  the  most  important  reason  for  sod 
culture  is  to  hold  the  soil  in  place  on  slopes  so  steep  that 
even  temporary  tillage  cannot  well  be  given  without  exces- 
sive erosion.  Many  steep  hillsides  may  profitably  be  planted 
to  orchards  and  maintained  in  sod  culture  where  the  soil  could 
not  be  held  in  place  if  even  brief  early  spring  tillage  were 
practiced  annually  and  followed  with  cover  crops  later  in  the 
season.  Even  granting  all  the  advantages  of  tillage  in  an 
orchard  alternated  with  the  growth  of  cover  crops,  it  is  in 
many  cases  better  to  maintain  the  orchard  in  permanent  sod 
and  hold  the  permanent  surface  soil  in  place  than  to  till  and 
allow  the  soil  to  slip  away  into  the  valleys  and  streams  below. 
Again,  there  are  certain  soils  that  have  such  a  tendency  to 
wash  when  cultivated  that  it  is  difficult  to  hold  them  in  place 
even  when  the  slope  is  not  great.  This  is  particularly  true 
of  soils  largely  made  of  excessively  fine  particles.  It  is  also 
true  of  a  soil  that  heaves  badly  and  slides  during  alternate 
thawing  and  freezing  in  winter.  Some  soils,  if  bare,  also 
run  together,  crust  over,  and  bake  badly  in  a  dry  time. 
Good  tillage  is  difficult  under  these  conditions,  and  a  good 
dust  mulch  can  hardly  be  retained  in  place.  Where  either  of 
these  conditions  prevail,  sod  culture  may  be  justifiable. 

In  certain  fine,  light,  sandy  soils  the  sand  can  be  held  in 
place  only  by  retaining  an  abundance  of  plant  fiber  in  the  soil 


16  APPLE  CULTURE  §5 

or  by  maintaining  a  sod  mulch.  In  such  soils,  as  soon  as  til- 
lage has  been  maintained  for  a  few  years,  the  sand  will  begin 
to  drift,  moving  about  so  that  it  is  impossible  to  hold  the  soil 
in  place  about  the  roots  of  the  trees.  If  such  soils  are  long 
kept  bare,  it  becomes  impossible  to  get  a  stand  of  cover  crops 
due  to  the  sifting  of  the  sandy  surface  soil.  Often,  in  such 
a  locality,  the  only  practical  way  of  holding  the  soil  in  place 
is  by  the  means  of  permanent  sod. 

Undoubtedly  there  are  conditions  under  which  sod  culture 
may  succeed  better  than  methods  of  tillage.  Wherever  sod  cul- 
ture is  maintained,  however,  the  fact  cannot  be  too  strongly 
emphasized  that  sufficient  growth  should  be  secured  to  main- 
tain a  thick  mulch  in  connection  with  the  sod.  The  term  sod 
culture  seems  to  be  contradictory,  since  the  maintenance  of 
a  sod  does  not  admit  of  tillage,  which  is  usually  implied  by 
the  term  culture,  but  it  should  be  remembered  that  under  a 
sod,  where  the  grasses  or  other  plants  forming  it  fall  down  and 
die  on  the  ground  annually,  any  soil  will  take  on  a  mellow  and 
flocculent  condition.  This  condition  becomes  closely  akin 
to  the  mechanical  or  physical  condition  of  the  soil  brought 
about  by  good  tillage.  There  are  undoubtedly  certain  soils  that 
will,  under  tillage  and  burning  out  of  the  humus,  become  more 
compact,  run  together,  bake  worse,  and  suffer  more  from 
drought  than  they  v/ill  under  what  is  termed  sod  culture. 

25.  Disadvantages  of  Sod  Culture. — It  should  be 
understood  that  there  are  certain  fundamental  disadvantages 
in  sod  culture,  one  of  which  is  that  the  grass  or  other  plants 
forming  the  sod  take  from  the  soil  moisture  and  plant -food  that 
is  needed  by  the  trees.  It  is  believed  by  some  that  grasses  or 
sod-forming  plants  not  only  compete  with  the  roots  of  the 
trees  but  that  they  have  a  more  or  less  injurious  effect  on  soil 
that  is  being  utilized  for  orchard  purposes  and  hence  are  prej- 
udicial to  the  best  health  of  orchard  trees.  It  is  not  definitely 
known  to  just  what  degree  sod  plants  may  be  injurious  or 
interfere  with  the  growth  of  orchard  trees,  but  there  seems 
to  be  reason  to  believe  that  some  such  action  takes  place. 
Another  objection  to  sod  culture  is  that  many  insects  miiltiply 


§5  APPLE  CULTURE  17 

much  more  abundantly  in  orchards  under  cover  of  permanent 
sod  than  in  cultivated  ground.  This  is  particularly  true  of 
the  curculio.  Many  species  of  noxious  orchard  insects  hiber- 
nate in  the  soil  and  may  be  smothered  or  destroyed  by  stir- 
ring the  soil  at  the  right  time  of  year,  but  this  method  of  insect 
fighting  is  not  feasible  in  an  orchard  that  is  under  sod  ciilture. 
It  is  also  true  that  fungous  diseases  that  develop  in  decayed 
leaves  or  fruit  and  other  trash  under  the  trees  will  develop 
much  more  abundantly  where  sod  is  maintained  than  where 
surface  tillage  and  a  dry  dust  mulch  prevail. 


MULCH    CULTURE 

26.  The  method  of  Orchard  management  known  as  mulcli 
culture  consists  in  applying  to  the  ground  a  mulch  of  mate- 
rials grown  elsewhere,  whereas  in  the  sod-culture  method  just 
described  the  mulch  material  is  grown  in  the  orchard.  Straw, 
strawy  manure,  weeds  from  the  fence  rows  or  roadways,  leaves, 
corn  stalks,  or  any  organic  material  grown  on  other  lands  may 
be  hauled  into  the  orchard  and  used  as  a  miilch  about  the  trees. 

Most  of  the  reasons  mentioned  for  sod  ctilture,  the  condi- 
tions under  which  it  may  be  maintained,  and  the  general 
merits  and  demerits  will  apply  with  equal  force  to  mulch  cul- 
ture. Although  it  is  true  that,  as  a  rule,  mulch  culture  is 
too  expensive  for  large  orchard  areas,  there  is  an  important 
point  in  mulch  culture  that  should  be  emphasized.  It  usually 
should  be  the  beginning  of  sod  culture,  in  order  to  hasten 
the  formation  of  a  mulch,  because  1  or  2  years  are  required 
to  establish  a  mulch  by  sod  culture.  Consequently  the  soil 
drys  out,  cracks  in  a  dry  time,  and  the  orchard  trees  are  likely 
to  suffer  from  drought.  The  strongest  advocates  of  sod  cul- 
ture usually  emphasize  the  desirability  of  placing  all  possible 
additional  mulch  under  the  trees  in  the  orchard  during  the 
first  year  or  two,  while  the  sod  mulch  is  establishing  itself. 

After  seeding  an  orchard  for  sod  culture  in  the  spring, 
grasses  are  allowed  to  grow  and  are  mowed  frequently  diuing 
the  season — perhaps  three  or  four  times  in  the  season.  In 
addition,  on  the  appearance  of  dry  weather  in  late  summer. 


18  APPLE  CULTURE  .     §5 

any  available  straw  or  other  mulch  that  can  be  had  should  be 
spread  under  the  trees.  If  at  any  subsequent  time  the  sod 
does  not  make  cover  enough  to  protect  the  ground  against 
baking,  drying  out,  and  cracking  open,  additional  mulch  shotdd 
be  hauled  in.  If  the  trees  are  young  and  consequently  feeding 
in  restricted  areas,  this  miilch  should  be  spread  under  the  trees 
as  far  as  their  outspread  of  branches,  but  if  the  trees  are  large 
the  mulch  is  usually  distributed  evenly  between  the  rows. 

Mulch  culture  has  an  advantage  over  sod  culture  in  the 
fact  that  a  mulch  drawn  into  the  orchard  may  be  applied  to 
any  depth  necessary  to  protect  the  soil  from  drying  out  or 
baking  and  it  may  be  increased  at  any  time.  The  tendency 
in  sod  culture  is  to  depend  on  the  sod  to  form  at  least  the  main 
part  of  the  mulch.  Mulch  culture,  however,  has  the  dis- 
advantage of  being  far  more  expensive,  as  it  is  obviously 
cheaper  to  produce  the  miilch  on  the  orchard  area  itself  than 
to  devote  other  land  to  mulch  production  and  haul  the  mulch 
to  the  orchard. 

PRUNING  OF  APPLE  TREES 


OBJECTS     OF     PRUNING 

27.  Pruning  consists  in  the  removal  of  superfluous  or 
undesirable  branches  from  trees  or  plants  and  is  one  of 
the  important  details  of  apple-orchard  management.  Not- 
withstanding the  importance  of  pnming,  there  is  a  wide  dif- 
ference of  opinion  among  orchardists  as  to  the  details  of  the 
operation,  and  it  must  be  admitted  that  the  subject  is  one 
that  is  not  well  understood. 

28.  Pruning  to  Reduce  Leaf  Surface. — It  has  been 
explained  elsewhere  that  it  is  necessary  to  reduce  the  leaf 
surface  at  the  time  of  setting,  since  the  roots  have  been  cut 
and  thus  the  ability  of  the  tree  to  secure  water  from  the  soil 
has  been  reduced.  If  a  full  leaf  surface  is  left,  there  is  danger 
that  the  evaporation  may  be  so  great  as  to  weaken  materially 
the  tree  or  even  cause  its  death  during  a  dry  summer.  Pru- 
ning to  reduce  the  leaf  surface  may  also  be  necessary  in  the 


§  5  APPLE  CULTURE  19 

case  of  old  trees  whose  tops  have  become  very  large,  in  the 
case  of  weak  trees,  in  the  case  of  trees  growing  in  a  soil  where 
the  roots  are  not  able  to  penetrate  deeply,  and  in  the  case  of 
trees  whose  wood  has  been  badly  injured  in  winter. 

29.  Pruning  to  Control  Shape. — It  is  only  by  pruning 
that  the  desired  shape  of  a  tree  can  be  maintained.  The 
natural  growth  of  the  tree  is  not  likely  to  be  along  lines  desired 
by  the  orchardist,  hence  it  is  necessary  to  resort  to  artificial 
means  of  controlling  the  shape.  As  explained  in  detail  on 
subsequent  pages,  it  is  by  judicious  pruning  that  the  orchardist 
makes  his  trees  high-headed  or  low-headed  and  establishes  a 
pyramidal  or  an  open-headed  form  as  desired.  Some  varieties 
lend  themselves  to  one  of  these  forms  better  than  others,  but 
pruning  to  maintain  the  form  is  necessary  in  all  cases. 

Pruning  is  also  necessary  to  prevent  the  trees  from  becoming 
too  tall  in  some  cases  and  too  straggling  in  others.  The  growth 
of  the  trees  may  be  made  more  stocky  by  pruning,  especially 
if  considerable  cutting  back  is  done,  and  this  is  essential  in 
the  case  of  most  varieties  to  give  the  desired  form  of  head  and 
strength  of  limb. 

30.  Pruning    to    Regulate    Vigor    of    Growtli. — The 

vigor  of  growth  of  a  tree  can  be  very  largely  regulated  by 
pruning.  Pruning,  especially  in  winter,  tends  to  invigorate 
the  tree  by  inducing  a  heavy  growth  of  wood  during  succeed- 
ing seasons.  After  pruning,  growth  will  continue  later  in  the 
summer  and  the  new  twigs  will  be  larger  and  stronger  than 
if  left  unpnnied.  On  the  other  hand,  summer  pruning  may 
be  done  at  a  time  that  it  will  reduce  the  vigor  of  the  tree,  and 
in  a  few  cases  this  also  may  be  necessary. 

31.  Pruning  to  Control  Size. — The  size  of  a  tree  can 
be  very  materially  affected  by  pruning.  It  has  been  estab- 
lished by  the  experience  of  many  practical  growers  and  experi- 
menters, especially  that  of  Professor  Pickering,  of  the  Wobum 
Experiment  Station,  England,  that  pruning  is  a  dwarfing  proc- 
ess. Although  a  tree,  after  a  severe  pruning  in  winter,  will 
make  more   vigorous   growth   the   summer   following,   it   will 


20  APPLE  CULTURE  §  5 

seldom  make  sufficient  growth  to  replace  what  was  cut  off 
plus  what  growth  would  have  taken  place  if  no  pruning  had 
been  done.  After  20  years  of  rather  severe  pruning,  trees 
will,  as  a  rule,  be  considerably  smaller  in  most  soils  and 
climates  than  if  no  pruning  had  been  done.  There  are  excep- 
tions to  this,  however,  in  the  case  of  thin  soil  in  climates  in  the 
southern  part  of  the  apple-growing  region.  Thus  in  the  Ozark 
region,  cases  have  been  observed  in  which  pruning  had  the 
opposite  effect;  that  is,  it  increased  the  size  of  the  tree.  There 
were  cases  in  which  the  soil  was  poor  and  the  climate  not  well 
adapted  to  the  apple,  and  as  a  result  the  trees  became  bark 
bound.  Severe  pruning  overcame  this  condition  and  permitted 
the  trees  to  make  a  more  vigorous  growth  than  would  other- 
wise have  been  possible.  It  has  been  found  that  pruning  in 
summer  has  more  of  a  dwarfing  effect  than  pruning  in  winter. 


TIME    OF    PRUNING 

32.  The  time  of  pruning  will  depend  on  the  condition  of 
the  tree  and  the  extent  of  pruning  to  be  done.  If  it  is  merely 
necessary  to  cut  out  a  few  crossed  limbs  or  to  remove  a  few 
limbs  that  are  filling  up  the  center  of  the  head  in  an  undesir- 
able manner,  the  pruning  may  be  done  at  any  time  that  is 
most  convenient ;  but  if  considerable  wood  is  to  be  cut  off,  it  is 
advisable  to  give  the  matter  of  doing  it  at  the  proper  time 
careful  consideration. 

Generally  speaking,  it  may  be  said  that  winter  pruning  is 
most  desirable,  for  pruning  at  this  time  tends  to  invigorate 
the  tree.  However,  if  a  tree  is  making  too  rapid  growth  and 
is  not  fruiting  well,  it  may  be  advisable  to  prune  in  summer, 
though  probably  the  safer  plan  would  be  to  resort  to  some 
other  method  to  check  growth  and  induce  fruiting.  Summer 
pruning  is  supposed  to  encourage  fruitfulness,  and  growers 
have  at  times  successfully  resorted  to  summer  pruning  as  a 
means  of  throwing  unproductive  trees  into  bearing.  But  it 
shoiild  be  pointed  out  that  this  method  is  not  uniformly 
successftil  and  is  hardly  to  be  generally  recommended.  To 
induce  fruitfulness,   summer  pruning  must   be  done  shortly 


§  5  APPLE  CULTURE  21 

after  length  growth  of  wood  ceases  in  the  summer.  Pruning 
earlier  than  this  will  have  a  very  similar  effect  to  winter  pru- 
ning, and  will  not  increase  fruitfulness,  and  pruning  later  will 
tend  to  check  the  formation  of  fruit  buds  and  to  produce  a 
rather  undesirable  growth.  Furthermore,  it  may  be  said 
that  even  pruning  at  the  proper  time  does  not  always  produce 
fruitfulness  on  an  over  vigorous  tree,  and  it  is  generally  much 
safer  to  plant  the  too  vigorous  growing  varieties  on  thin  soil 
and  thus  check  their  growth  and  encourage  fruitftilness  than 
to  plant  them  on  rich  soil  and  depend  on  simimer  pruning  to 
throw  them  into  bearing. 


TYPES    OF    HEADS 

33.  For  the  purpose  of  this  discussion,  a  fruit  tree  may  be 
regarded  as  made  up  of  two  parts,  namely,  the  trmik,  which 
consists  of  the  lower  part  of  the  main  stem  extending  from 
the  ground  to  the  point  where  the  first  branches  are  thrown 
off;  and  the  head,  which  comprises  the  part  of  the  tree  above 
this  point.  Orchardists  recognize  several  distinct  types  of 
heads,  and  a  man  who  is  establishing  an  orchard  should  have 
a  knowledge  of  the  different  types,  the  advantages  and  dis- 
advantages of  each,  and  an  understanding  of  the  pruning  by 
which  he  may  induce  the  formation  of  type  desired.  Apple 
trees  may  be  pruned  a  high-headed  or  a  low-headed  type. 

34.  When  a  tree  has  been  so  trained  as  to  develop  its 
head  comparatively  high  from  the  ground,  as  shown  in  Fig.  1, 
the  tree  is  said  to  be  high -headed,  and  when  it  has  been  so 
trained  as  to  develop  its  head  relatively  close  to  the  grotmd, 
as  shown  in  Fig.  2,  it  is  said  to  be  low-headed. 

Owing  to  the  fact  that  somewhat  different  methods  are 
followed  in  the  various  apple-growing  sections,  it  is  difficult 
to  say  just  what  constitutes  the  dividing  line  between  high- 
headed  and  low-headed  trees.  A  tree  in  one  section  may  be 
considered  to  be  low  headed  and  in  another,  where  methods 
are  somewhat  different,  to  be  high-headed.  In  general  it 
may  be  said,  however,  that  trees  headed  higher  than  from 
36  to  40  inches   are   high-headed  trees,    and   probably  most 


APPLE  CULTURE 


§5 


advocates  of  low-headed  trees  will  prefer  to  head  their  trees 
from  18  to  30  inches  from  the  ground. 

Where  the  soil  is  rich  and  the  trees  are  to  be  permitted  to 
get  very  large,  high-headed  trees  may  be  necessary,  in  order 
to  enable  a  team  to  get  reasonably  close  to  them  in  cultivating. 
High-headed  trees  may  be  necessary,  also,  in  case  of  very 
vigorous-growing  varieties  like  the  Northern  Spy^  since  pruning 


to  keep  down  the  size  of  these  may  result  in  too  vigorous  wood 
growth  at  the  expense  of  fruit  growth.  The  high-headed 
tree  was  more  common  in  early  fruit-growing  days  before 
spraying  was  necessary  than  it  is  now.  Progressive  orchard- 
ists  object  to  it  for  the  reason  that  the  spraying  of  high-headed 
trees  is  slow,  expensive,  and  unsatisfactory,  and  picking  the 
fruit,  pruning,  keeping  out  canker,  and  other  details  of  care 
are  also  expensive  and  not  likely  to  be  done  effectively  in  the 


APPLE  CULTURE 


23 


case  of  a  high-headed  tree.  In  nearly  all  sections  growers  are 
coming  to  prefer  trees  with  low  heads,  even  with  the  vigorous 
growing  varieties,  and  by  enriching  the  soil,  seeding  down  to 
grass  and  pruning  heavily  are  usually  able  to  get  as  good 


results  with   smaller  trees   and   possibly  a   somewhat  larger 
number  of  them  per  acre. 

35.  Of  the  low-headed  trees  there  are  two  forms,  the 
pyramidal-lieaded,  in  which  the  tree  has  a  central  leader 
as  shown  in  Fig.  3  (a),  and  the  open-headed,  as  shown  in 
(&).  In  the  p5rramidal  form,  as  will  be  seen  in  the  illustration, 
the  main  stem,  or  trunk,  extends  to  the  top  of  the  tree  and  side 
branches  thrown  off  from  it  make  up  the  head.  In  a  tree  of 
the  open-headed  form  the  head  is  formed  from  four  or  five 


24 


§5  APPLE  CULTURE  25 

of  the  lower  side  branches,  the  main  stem  being  cut  of£  above 
the  uppermost  branch. 

The  advantages  claimed  for  the  pyramidal-headed  tree 
with  a  central  leader  over  the  open-headed  tree  are:  (1)  the 
limbs  are  smaller  in  proportion  to  the  body  of  the  tree  and  are, 
therefore,  less  liable  to  split  down  when  they  break  off;  (2)  if 
one  is  broken  off,  it  is  only  a  small  part  of  the  tree  and  there  is 
therefore  less  injury  than  would  be  the  case  if  a  limb  of  an 
open-headed  tree  were  broken  off;  (3)  the  limbs  are  also  shorter 
and  not  so  badly  bent  under  a  load  of  fruit;  (4)  the  body  of 
the  tree  and  main  limbs  are  in  a  measure  protected  from  the 
direct  rays  of  the  sun  and  thus  not  so  likely  to  suffer  from  sun 
scald  in  winter;  (5)  if  the  tree  is  neglected  for  a  year  or  two, 
smaller  injury  results  than  with  the  open-headed  tree. 

There  are  some  distinct  disadvantages,  however,  with  this 
form  of  head.  These  are:  (1)  it  is  very  difficult  to  maintain 
the  central  leader  after  the  tree  gets  old,  and  forks  in  the  top 
of  a  fairly  tall  tree  are  expensive  to  correct;  (2)  too  much  of 
the  fruit  is  borne  in  the  shade  and  the  color  is  not  so  good  as 
in  the  case  of  the  open -headed  tree;  (3)  probably  the  most 
serious  objection  is  that,  on  account  of  the  shade,  the  fruiting 
wood  is  kept  largely  on  the  periphery,  so  that  no  considerable 
shortening  can  be  done  without  greatly  reducing  the  nimiber 
of  fruit  buds  for  the  crop  following  the  pruning,  since  the  wood 
that  is  taken  off  in  shortening  the  branches  is  the  wood  that 
bears  the  fruit  buds. 

36.  The  advantages  claimed  for  the  open-headed  tree  over 
the  pyramidal  form  are:  (1)  fewer  limbs  are  used  and  those  left 
are  maintained  in  a  healthier  condition,  because  they  have 
room  to  develop;  (2)  the  tree  is  more  open  to  admit  sunlight 
and  the  wood  is,  therefore,  healthier,  and  the  fruit  is  better 
colored  and  better  developed;  (3)  the  pruning  and  spraying, 
especially  the  latter,  and  the  picking  of  the  fruit  can  be  done 
more  cheaply  and  more  thoroughly;  (4)  the  trees  can  be  cut 
back  to  the  desired  extent  each  year  without  danger  of 
too  greatly  reducing  the  number  of  fruit  buds,  because  the 
fruiting  wood  is  kept  further  down  the  limbs,  which  favors 


2G  APPLE  CULTURE  §  5 

healthy  growth  to  the  very  base  of  the  Hmbs  in  some  cases; 
(5)  the  fruit  borne  does  not  exert  a  great  strain  on  the  limbs, 
because,  instead  of  being  borne  entirely  at  the  end  where 
there  is  the  greater  leverage,  it  is  distributed  throughout  the 
length  of  the  limb ;  and  (6)  experience  shows  that  fruit  on  the 
open-headed  tree  is  more  uniformly  large  than  on  a  tree  of 
the  other  type.  This  is  probably  on  account  of  its  being  dis- 
tributed along  the  limb  instead  of  clustered  at  the  end,  as  is 
likely  to  be  the  case  in  pyramidal -headed  trees. 

The  disadvantages  of  the  open-headed  tree  are:  (1)  the 
small  number  of  limbs,  usually  not  more  than  four,  and  as 
these  must  be  large  there  may  be  danger  of  the  limbs  split- 
ting down;  (2)  the  limbs  are  likely  to  be  longer,  because  the 
tree  tends  to  spread  out  rather  than  grow  up  and  this  takes 
up  more  space.  These  disadvantages,  however,  are  offset  by 
clipping  the  trees  annually  and  thus  making  them  stocky 
so  they  will  stand  up  well  under  a  load.  They  are  also  offset 
to  some  extent  by  directing  the  growth  of  the  main  limbs 
upwards  so  that  they  will  stand  up  under  the  load  better  and 
by  furnishing  artificial  support  for  the  limbs  when  they  are 
heavily  laden  with  fruit. 


ESTABLISHMENT    OF    THE    FRAMEWORK 

37.  Three  or  four  years  will  be  required  for  establishing 
the  framework  of  either  the  pyramidal-headed  or  the  open- 
headed  tree,  and  in  doing  this  certain  precautions  should  be 
observed.  For  instance,  weak  crotches  and  bad  forks  should 
be  avoided,  and  two  limbs  should  not  be  allowed  to  come  out 
directly  opposite  each  other  on  the  trunk  of  a  tree;  the  limbs 
should  be  spaced  6  or  8  inches  apart  along  the  trunk,  and  two 
limbs  should  not  come  near  each  other  on  the  same  side  of  the 
tree.  In  establishing  the  framework  of  the  open-headed  tree, 
only  about  four  or  five  main  branches  should  be  allowed  to 
develop;  for  the  pyramidal-headed  tree,  from  seven  to  ten  main 
branches  may  be  developed,  and  these  should  be  well 
spaced  around  the  central  leader. 


APPLE  CULTURE 


27 


PRUNING    FOR    PYRAMIDAL    HEAD 

38.  A  common  mistake  in  starting  a  pyramidal-headed 
tree  is  to  allow  the  limbs  to  come  out  too  near  each  other,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  4  (a).  This  error  results  from  the  fact  that 
when  the  trees  are  small  the  limbs  do  not  appear  to  be  crowded, 
but  when  such  trees  approach  maturity  it  will  be  found  that 
the  limbs  are  close  together  and 
growth  cannot  take  place  near 
the  base.  A  more  desirable 
spacing  of  limbs  is  illustrated 
in  (b)  where  no  two  limbs  are 
directly  opposite  each  other. 

The  pruning  of  a  2-year-old 
nursery  tree  for  the  pyramidal 
head  must  be  done  with  a  view 
of  giving  the  central  leader  the 
advantage,  of  preventing  the  for- 
mation of  weak  forks,  and  of 
forcing  the  growth  into  the  slow 
growing  limbs  by  clipping  back  <*=,,^ 
the  rapidly  growing  limbs.  The 
high  limbs  on  the  main  leader 
will,  as  a  rule,  grow  more  rapidly 
than  the  lower  ones,  and  these, 
therefore,  are  usually  cut  back 
more  severely  than  the  lower 
ones. 


Fig.  4 


39.  During  the  first  summer 
the  buds  that  come  out  where 
no  limbs  are  desired  should  be 
rubbed  off,  and  the  winter  after  the  first  summer's  growth  the 
new  growth  on  each  of  the  desired  limbs  should  be  cut  back 
approximately  one-half,  though  on  the  upper  limbs  it  will 
probably  be  necessary  to  cut  back  more  than  one-half,  and 
possibly  the  lower  hmbs  should  be  cut  back  a  little  less  than 
one-half.     This  same  winter  it  may  be  necessary  to  cut  off  some 

248—16 


28 


APPLE  CULTURE 


of  the  twigs  from  the  main  limbs  that  are  left,  since  it  is 
important  that  the  secondary  branches,  also,  will  be  well  spaced 
and  stocky. 

40.  During  the  second  winter  it  will  again  be  necessary 
to  cut  back  the  main  branches  and  the  leader  in  about  the 
same  manner  as  suggested  for  the  first  winter.     If  the  leader 


(a) 


(b) 


Fig.  5 


is  not  growing  rapidly  enough  it  will,  in  all  cases,  be  necessary 
to  cut  back  the  main  branches  more  than  was  suggested,  in 
order  to  force  the  growth  into  the  leader. 

41.  The  general  extent  of  the  pruning  that  should  be  done 
to  a  tree  in  its  third  year  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  5,  which  shows 
in  (a)  a  tree  before  it  has  been  cut  back  and  in  (6)  the  tree 


§  5  APPLE  CULTURE  29 

after  it  has  been  cut  back.  During  the  next  few  years,  the 
necessary  pruning  is  to  keep  the  secondary  branches — that  is, 
the  branches  springing  from  the  main  branches — and  the 
branches-  springing  from  the  secondary  branches  well  spaced  in 
order  to  permit  light  to  reach  all  parts  of  the  tree;  it  is  also 
important  to  cut  out  limbs  that  tend  to  cross  and  those  that 
are  badly  injured,  and  to  prevent  forks  by  cutting  tack  limbs 
that  are  growing  rapidly  and  giving  indications  of  becoming 
too  large. 

42.  As  a  general  rule  the  trees  should  not  be  permitted  to 
get  any  taller  than  they  are  at  the  age  of  about  8  or  9  years ;  after 
this  age  the  center  of  the  top  should  be  cut  back  to  about  the 
same  point  each  year,  otherwise  pruning  of  the  tree  will  become 
very  expensive  in  later  years,  on  account  of  the  extreme  height 
of  the  top.  The  method  recommended  is  only  a  modified 
form  of  the  real  central-leader  tree,  for  a  central  leader,  if 
maintained  throughout  the  life  of  the  tree  and  permitted  to 
become  taller  each  year,  develops  into  an  extremely  unde- 
sirable form,  and  spraying,  pruning,  harvesting,  etc.,  become 
uneconomical  and  difficult  or  impossible. 


PRUNING     FOR     OPEN    HEAD 

43.  In  pruning  to  form  an  open-headed  tree,  the  grower 
should  have  in  mind  a  definite  ideal  and  work  toward  it.  The 
best  results  can  be  secured  by  beginning  with  large  1-year-old 
trees,  such  as  the  one  illustrated  in  Fig  6,  (a),  for  in  this  case 
buds  can  be  permitted  to  grow  where  limbs  are  desired  and  all 
others  removed  when  they  start  growth.  If  it  is  necessary  to 
start  with  2-year-old  trees,  it  may  be  advisable  to  cut  off  all 
existing  branches,  select  about  four  buds  that  will  produce 
branches  at  desired  points,  and  allow  these  to  grow.  Occasion- 
ally, a  2-year-old  tree  may  be  found  that  has  four  good,  stocky 
branches  properly  spaced  for  the  development  of  the  desired 
form  of  head  and  in  such  cases  these  branches  may  be  allowed 
to  remain  and  all  others  removed;  the  branches  selected  for 
the  formation  of  the  tree  should  be  from  4  to  6  inches  apart 


30 


APPLE  CULTURE 


§5 


and  be  evenly  spaced  around  the  trunk.  Unless  such  limbs  are 
to  be  found  on  a  young  tree  it  will  be  best  to  remove  all 
limbs  as  directed  and  permit  new  ones  to  start  at  desired 
points.  Stockiness  is  of  even  more  importance  in  establishing 
an  open-headed  tree  than  one  with  a  pyramidal  head,  and 
this  stockiness  is  secured  by  clipping  the  limbs  back. 

44.  Pruning'  the  first  winter  should  be  to  cut  back  each 
of  the  four  branches  one-half  and  cut  the  central,  or  main, 
stem  back  just  about  even  with  the  top  branch  so  that  it  will 


i«^. 


(a) 


heal  over.  During  the  second  summer  it  may  be  necessary 
to  rub  off  sprouts  that  tend  to  push  up  into  the  center,  and, 
thus  throw  the  growth  into  those  limbs  that  it  is  desired  to 
retain.  The  pruning  in  the  second  winter  should  be  directed 
toward  cutting  back  both  the  main  and  the  secondary  branches 
about  one-half  and  keeping  the  secondary  branches  well  spaced 
on  the  main  branches,  by  cutting  off  all  superfluous  secondary 
branches.  These  branches  should  be  at  least  6  inches  apart 
on  the  main  branches.  The  points  for  cutting  back  the  main 
branches  are  indicated  by  dotted  lines  in  Fig.  6  (b) . 


§  5  APPLE  CULTURE  31 

45.  Pruning  similar  to  that  recommended  for  the  first 
and  second  years  may  be  necessary  in  the  third  summer;  the 
third  winter  the  pruning  should  be  to  space  the  third-year 
branches  on  the  secondary  branches  and  to  cut  back  all  new 
growth  about  one-half  for  the  purpose  of  securing  stockiness. 
A  3-year-old  tree  properly  primed  is  shown  in  Fig.  6  (c). 

46.  The  spacing  of  the  limbs  and  cutting  back  of  the 
twigs  should  be  carried  on  in  later  years,  but  the  cutting  back 
should  be  less  severe  up  to  the  time  the  tree  reaches  bearing 
age  unless  the  tree  tends  to  be  slender,  in  which  case  the  cut- 
ting back  should  be  somewhat  more  severe  in  order  to  promote 
stockiness.  If  the  tree  tends  to  spread  too  much,  the  ends 
of  the  branches  may  be  cut  back  to  an  upright  limb,  thus 
forcing  the  growth  upwards. 

47.  Water  sprouts  may  give  somewhat  more  trouble  in 
the  case  of  the  open-headed  than  in  the  case  of  the  pyramidal- 
headed  tree;  undesirable  water  sprouts  should  be  rubbed  off 
during  the  first  winter,  so  that  the  growth  will  go  into  desira- 
ble limbs.  Occasionally  a  water  sprout  may  come  at  a  place 
where  a  limb  is  desired,  and  in  this  case  it  may  be  made  into 
a  desirable  branch  by  cutting  it  back  about  one-half,  and 
following  this  the  next  year  by  cutting  back  each  of  its 
branches  about  one-half. 

PRUNING  OP  BEARING  APPLE  TREES 

48.  The  pruning  of  a  pyramidal-headed  apple  tree  should 
be  to  cut  out  crossed  or  injured  limbs,  to  shorten  those  that 
are  growing  too  long,  and  to  cut  down  the  central  leader  in 
order  to  prevent  the  tree  from  becoming  too  tall.  Some 
annual  clipping,  also,  is  necessary  in  order  to  help  keep  up 
the  vigor  of  the  tree. 

Annual  clipping  of  an  open-headed  bearing  tree  is  of  more 
importance  than  in  the  case  of  the  pyramidal-headed  tree, 
since  it  is  necessary  both  to  keep  up  the  vigor  of  the  tree  and 
to  keep  the  limbs  stocky  and  strong.  It  may  be  necessary 
to  cut  out  growth  that  takes  place  in  the  center  of  an  open- 
headed  tree  and  tends  to  fill  up  the  space  in  the  head,  or  it 


32  APPLE  CULTURE  §  5 

may  be  necessary  to  cut  off  the  outer  limbs  and  push  the 
growth  into  upward-growing  branches  in  order  to  prevent 
the  tree  from  becoming  too  spreading  in  form. 

Fruit  growers  do  not  usually  recognize  the  importance  of 
pruning  to  regulate  fruitfulness.  If  a  tree  receives  little  or  no 
pruning,  and  especially  if  it  is  not  well  cultivated,  after  it 
becomes  old  each  spur  will  bear  a  fruit  bud  on  its  end. 
Usually  a  spur  that  bears  a  flower  cluster  one  year  will  be 
barren  the  year  following.  The  result  will  be  that  the  tree 
will  bear  an  excessively  heavy  bloom  one  year  and  no  bloom 
the  next;  that  is,  the  tree  will  alternate  a  heavy  crop  with  no 
crop.  With  somewhat  heavy  pruning,  and  especially  if  this 
pruning  is  associated  with  good  cultivation,  a  considerable  per- 
centage of  the  spurs  in  any  one  year  will  not  have  fruit  buds, 
and  thus  will  be  left  to  set  fruit  buds  for  the  year  following. 
In  other  words,  a  medium  niimber  of  fruit  buds  will  set  each 
year  instead  of  a  very  large  number  on  alternate  years.  Thus 
pruning  and  cultivating  to  give  the  trees  greater  vigor  of 
growth  will  prevent  alternating  with  most  varieties.  How- 
ever, with  some  varieties  alternating  is  a  very  fixed  habit  that 
apparently  cannot  be  broken  entirely  by  any  known  method 
of  care.  While  a  tree  kept  in  vigorous  condition  by  good 
pruning  and  cultivation  will  have  a  lighter  bloom  each  year 
than  it  would  have  on  the  cropping  year  where  it  is  left  to 
make  a  weak  growth  and  alternate,  it  does  not  necessarily 
follow  that  the  crop  of  fruit  will  be  lighter.  In  fact,  the  crop 
of  fruit  ripened  is  very  likely  to  be  almost  as  large  each  year 
as  the  crop  ripened  on  the  alternate  years  with  a  weak  tree. 
This  is  true  because  the  fruit  is  likely  to  be  larger  and  also 
because  the  bloom  is  healthier  and  more  likely  to  set  fruit 
than  that  on  the  weaker  alternating  tree.  It  has  been  found 
that  a  large  percentage  of  the  pollen  on  old  neglected  trees  is 
sterile,  so  that  there  is  often  Hable  to  be  a  light  set  of  fruit 
from  a  very  heavy  bloom. 

Pruning  of  bearing  trees  will  also  be  necessary  at  times  to 
control  certain  diseases  like  blight  and  canker.  Badly  bhghted 
and  cankered  areas  should  be  cut  out  and  all  forms  of  diseased 
limbs  cut  off  and  the  wounds  painted. 


APPLE  CULTURE 


33 


DETAILS    OF    PRUNING 

49.  An  important  detail  to  be  observed  in  pruning,  par- 
ticularly in  the  case  of  large  trees,  is  to  leave  wounds  that  will 
heal  readily.  One  of  the  most  common  errors  in  this  respect 
is  that  of  cutting  off  limbs  at  such  a  distance  from  the  trunk 
or  parent  branch  as  to  leave  stubs  varying  from  a  few  inches 
to  a  foot  or  more  in  length.  These  stubs  are  not  only 
unsightly  and  inconvenient  in  thinning  and  spraying  operations, 
but  they  are  also  a  source  of  serious  injiiry  to  the  tree  itself. 
By  the  removal  of  the  outer  end  of  the  limb  the  stubs  have 
been  deprived  of  nourishment,  and  as  a  result  the  bark  on  the 
stub   dies   and  falls  away.     The   exposed    wood  decays,  and 


ultimately  the  decayed  area  extends  into  the  trunk  or  the 
larger  branch  from  which  the  stub  protrudes.  In  this  con- 
dition the  wound  is  difficult  to  treat,  and  if  untreated  is  likely 
to  destroy  the  tree  sooner  or  later. 

In  Fig.  7  (a),  is  illustrated  a  tree  pruned  in  such  a  way  as 
to  leave  a  stub  a  on  the  trunk  and  a  stub  6  on  a  limb.  In  (b) 
is  shown  the  manner  in  which  these  stubs  begin  to  decay,  the 
dotted  lines  indicating  how  the  decay  will  ultimately  extend 
into  the  adjacent  wood.  In  (c)  is  shown  the  ultimate  result 
of  this  neglect.  If  instead  of  leaving  stubs  as  shown  in  Fig. 
7,  the  limbs  are  removed  by  making  the  cut  close  to  the  trunk, 


34 


APPLE  CULTURE 


the  trouble  just  described  will  be  avoided,  for  in  this  case  the 
tree  is  able  to  cover  the  wound  with  new  tissue  that  protects 
it  from  organisms  that  cause  decay.  The  plant-food  neces- 
sary for  this  new  growth  is  available  at  this  point,  for  there 
is  leaf  surface  just  beyond  to  supply  it.  For  the  reason  just 
explained,  it  is  usually  advisable  to  cut  off  the  limbs  as  close 
to  the  trunk  or  the  parent  branch  as  possible,  although  this  is 
not  always  the  case.  Frequently  there  is  more  or  less  of  an 
enlargement  at  the  base  of  a  limb.  In  such  cases,  cutting  the 
limb  at  the  point  where  it  joins  the  trunk  will  result  in  a  much 
larger  wound  than  if  it  were  cut  about  half  way  through  the 


^^^^i 


Fig.  8 


Fig.  9 


enlargement  and  the  smaller  woimd  will  heal  more  quickly 
even  though  it  is  a  little  further  from  the  trunk  than  the 
larger  wound. 

Figs.  8  and  9  give  a  good  idea  of  the  healing  process  that 
takes  place  over  a  properly  made  wound.  Fig.  8  shows  cal- 
lous tissue  just  beginning  to  cover  a  wound,  and  Fig.  9  shows 
the  wound  almost  covered  with  new  growth. 

50.  As  a  safeguard  against  the  entrance  of  organisms 
causing  decay,  all  wounds  except  possibly  very  small  ones 
should  be  painted  with  either  common  white-lead  paint  or 
with  grafting  wax,  and  if  the  wound  is  very  large  it  should  be 
painted  every  season  until  it  is  healed  over. 


§  5  APPLE  CULTURE  35 

When  a  limb  is  to  be  shortened  it  is  always  advisable  to  cut 
it  at  a  point  where  there  is  a  strong  branch  thrown  out  from 
it.  Care  should  be  taken  to  avoid  splitting  a  large  limb  that 
is  being  cut  back,  because  such  a  split  is  likely  to  extend  down 
and  injure  wood  it  is  desired  to  retain.  A  method  by  which 
splitting  may  be  prevented  is  to  saw  in  about  an  inch  or  more 
on  the  under  side  of  the  limb,  then  to  saw  the  limb  off  from  the 
upper  side  about  an  inch  below  where  the  cut  was  made  on  the 
lower  side.  The  limb  will  thus  be  sawed  off  before  the  lower 
side  of  it  becomes  so  weak  that  it  will  split  down.  Very  large 
limbs  should  be  first  cut  off  a  foot  or  more  beyond  where  they 
are  ultimately  to  be  cut,  thus  reducing  the  danger  of  a  serious 
split  by  removing  a  large  part  of  the  weight  before  the  final 
cut  is  made. 

THINNING  OF  APPLES 

51.  Successful  apple  orchardists  have  found  that  it  is 
not,  as  a  rule,  advisable  to  permit  trees  to  mature  all  the  fruit 
they  set.  The  practice  of  removing  by  hand  a  part  of  the 
fruit  before  maturity  is  known  as  tliinning,  and  is  now  an 
established  routine  in  most  apple  orchards. 

By  removing  some  apples  from  a  tree  the  fruit  that  remains 
develops  to  a  larger  size,  better  form,  and  acquires  a  better 
color  than  would  have  been  possible  if  thinning  had  not  been 
done.  Thinning  is  commonly  recommended  not  only  for  the 
improved  quality  of  the  current  season's  crop  but  to  improve  the 
chances  for  the  crop  the  following  season;  that  is,  to  prevent 
alternate  seasons  of  good  and  poor  crops.  The  theory  is  that 
the  spurs  from  which  the  fruit  is  pulled  in  thinning  will  set  fruit 
buds  for  the  following  season,  and  the  spurs  on  which  the  fruit 
is  allowed  to  remain  and  mature  will  form  only  wood  buds. 
Experience,  however,  so  far  does  not  fully  bear  out  this  theory 
for  in  the  case  of  an  experiment  at  Geneva,  New  York,  thin- 
ning failed  entirely  to  affect  alternating.  In  other  experi- 
ments, it  seems  to  have  some  slight  effect,  and  it  is  possible 
that  if  thinning  is  practiced  from  year  to  year,  the  trees  may 
be  kept  from  the  habit  of    alternating,  but  it  is  not    likely 


36  APPLE  CULTURE  §  5 

that  thinning  will  break  the  habit  of  alternating  in  a  tree  after 
it  is  once  fixed.  Most  orchardists  are  agreed  that  an  effec- 
tive way  to  prevent  alternating  is  by  careful  annual  pruning 
and  ciiltivation,  and  that  thinning  associated  with  these  proc- 
esses may  be  beneficial,  but  that  thinning  alone  cannot  be 
depended  on  to  prevent  alternating. 

It  pays  best  to  thin  in  sections  where  the  growers  are 
cooperating  so  that  the  increased  number  of  fancy  apples  can 
be  handled  to  a  good  advantage,  for  thinning  is  favorable  to 
the  production  of  fancy  fniit.  If  these  fancy  apples  must 
be  put  into  barrels  with  the  No.  1  quality  and  sold  for  the  same 
price,  the  profits  of  thinning  are  not  great,  but  if  there  are 
enough  growers  shipping  together  that  all  the  fancy  apples  may 
be  put  into  a  pack  that  will  be  offered  in  large  enough  quan- 
tities to  impress  the  market,  thinning  is  more  likely  to  pay. 
In  some  experiments,  thinning  has  reduced  the  total  number 
of  bushels  or  barrels  picked;  in  other  cases  it  has  not;  that  is, 
the  increased  size  of  the  fruit  has  offset  the  reduced  nimiber. 
In  practically  all  cases,  however,  more  money  is  received  for 
the  fruit  of  thinned  trees  than  for  the  fruit  from  similar  trees 
not  thinned.  The  fruit  from  thinned  trees  has  in  all  experi- 
ments shown  an  appreciably  better  color  than  from  unthinned 
trees. 

Thinning  is  of  special  importance  in  the  case  of  certain 
varieties  that  have  a  strong  tendency  to  overbear,  and  hence 
to  produce  fruit  that  is  small  and  irregular.  On  the  other 
hand,  there  are  some  varieties  that  are  not,  as  a  rule,  heavy 
bearers,  and  with  these  thinning  may  not  be  necessary.  Even 
in  the  latter  case,  however,  the  removal  of  a  few  fruits  at  points 
where  several  are  clustered  together  may  be  advisable. 

Thinning  is  usually  done  from  the  first  of  June  to  the  first 
of  July;  the  earlier  it  is  done  after  all  the  fruit  has  fallen  that 
is  going  to  fall  in  early  summer,  the  better. 

The  usual  practice  is  to  thin  clusters  to  only  one  fruit  and 
leave  no  two  fruits  closer  than  6  inches  apart.  In  some  cases 
a  space  of  8  or  9  inches  between  fruits  is  maintained. 

The  cost  of  thinning  varies  from  9  or  10  cents  to  60  or  70 
cents  per  tree,  depending  on  the  size  and  form  of  the  tree. 


§  5  APPLE  CULTURE  37 

Very  large  trees  20  or  25  years  old  will  cost  50  cents  or  more ; 
properly  pruned  trees  8  or  10  years  old  can  be  thinned  for 
10  or  12  cents. 

FERTILIZATION  OF  APPLE  ORCHARDS 

52.  The  elements  that  are  likely  to  be  deficient  in  a 
soil  are  nitrogen,  phosphorus,  potassium,  and  occasionally 
calcium,  and  with  most  crops  a  deficiency  of  one  of  these 
materials  becomes  the  limiting  factor  for  that  crop.  Thus, 
applying  an  excess  of  potassiimi  when  phosphorus  is  the  ele- 
ment that  is  deficient  does  little  or  no  good  and  in  some  cases 
may  actually  do  harm.  A  healthy,  vigorous  wood  growth 
indicates  that  sufficient  nitrogen  is  present,  and  deficiency 
of  nitrogen  results  in  limited  growth.  The  lack  of  potassium 
or  phosphorus  also  results  in  a  rather  weak  growth,  but  the 
effect  of  a  deficiency  of  these  two  elements  on  growth  is  not 
so  marked  as  is  the  case  when  nitrogen  is  lacking.  Potassium 
is  thought  by  many  growers  to  give  a  better  color  to  the  fruit, 
but  careftd  experiments  do  not  bear  out  this  opinion.  Lime 
is  useful  as  a  means  of  correcting  acid  soils,  but  since  an  apple 
soil  is  seldom  acid,  lime  may  be  entirely  omitted  in  a  discus- 
sion of  the  fertilization  of  an  apple  orchard. 

53.  It  is  well  known  that  apple  trees  bear  profitable  crops 
on  a  very  poor  soil,  yet  analyses  show  that  an  apple  crop 
actually  takes  away  annually  from  the  soil  more  nitrogen  and 
potassium  than  a  crop  of  grain.  It  has  been  found  that  an 
annual  crop  of  15  bushels  of  wheat  to  the  acre  takes  away 
from  the  soil  in  20  years  659.58  pounds  of  nitrogen,  210.6 
pounds  of  phosphoric  acid,  and  323  pounds  of  potassium. 
An  acre  of  apple  trees  from  13  to  33  years  old  and  bearing  a 
crop  of  15  bushels  to  the  tree  in  20  years  takes  away  from  the 
soil,  in  the  fruit,  498.6  pounds  of  nitrogen,  38.25  pounds  of 
phosphoric  acid,  and  728.55  pounds  of  potassium;  and  in  the 

I- leaves,  456.75  pounds  of  nitrogen,  126  pounds  of  phosphoric 
acid,  and  441  pounds  of  potassium.  It  will  be  seen,  assuming 
that  all  the  leaves  go  back  to  the  soil,  that  considerably  more 
potassium  is  removed  by  the  apple  crop  than  by  the  wheat 


38  APPLE  CULTURE  §  5 

crop.  Reasoning  from  these  results  it  would  seem  that  potas- 
sium is  a  very  important  orchard  fertilizer  and  that  all  ele- 
ments of  fertility  would  have  to  be  applied,  especially  to  an 
old  orchard  and  that,  even  in  a  medium  rich  soil,  fertilizers 
may  need  to  be  applied.  Further,  since  the  orchardist  is  deal- 
ing with  a  crop  that  is  so  valuable  that  a  small  percentage 
of  increased  yield  would  pay  for  the  fertilizers,  the  use  of  fer- 
tilizer in  an  orchard  would  seem  to  offer  better  results  than 
the  use  of  fertilizer  with  grain  crops,  with  which  often  a  con- 
siderably increased  yield  will  not  pay  for  the  cost  of  the  fer- 
tilizer, since  the  value  of  the  crop  per  acre  in  any  case  is  not 
great. 

54.  It  may  be  well  now  to  tiim  to  experimental  results 
to  see  whether  these  assumptions  are  borne  out  by  experience. 
It  is  plain  that  before  an  experiment  with  fertilizers  can  be 
given  any  credence  it  must  be  carried  on  for  a  considerable 
number  of  years,  certainly  not  less  than  iour  or  five.  A  num- 
ber of  long-time  experiments  of  a  rather  extensive  nature  have 
been  tried.  One  of  the  first  of  these  to  be  published  was  an 
experiment  carried  on  for  12  years  with  trees  more  than 
40  years  of  age  to  begin  with,  on  a  soil  of  medium  richness  in 
Western  New  York.  This  experiment  was  in  the  use  of  potas- 
sium and  phosphate  only.  Some  varieties  showed  an  appar- 
ent gain  from  the  treatment;  others  showed  a  loss.  The  net 
result  from  the  use  of  fertilizer  was  a  benefit  of  about  $99  for 
5  acres,  and  the  cost  of  the  fertilizer  was  about  $74.50,  leaving 
a  profit  of  only  about  $24.50.  This  did  not  pay  for  apply- 
ing the  fertilizer,  and  as  the  difference  is  within  the  range  of 
error  the  experiment  seems  to  indicate  that  the  advisability 
of  using  fertilizers  in  an  orchard  having  a  soil  of  reasonable 
fertility  is  somewhat  questionable.  Another  experiment  for 
15  years  with  young  trees,  showed  no  benefits  from  the  use 
of  either  potash,  phosphorus,  or  nitrogen. 

55.  At  the  Wobum  Experiment  Station,  England,  in  a 
rich  soil  a  long-time  experiment  failed  to  show  any  beneficial 
results,  even  on  old  trees,  from  the  use  of  any  form  of  fer- 
tilizer; however,  it  is  reported  that  on  a  thin  soil  the  sam^e 


§  5  APPLE  CULTURE  39 

experiment  station  has  secured  profits  from  the  use  of  fertilizers. 
The  Massachusetts  Experiment  Station  ,  secured  profits  from 
the  use  of  potassium,  nitrogen,  and  phosphorus,  and  espe- 
cially from  the  use  of  barnyard  manure.  At  the  Pennsylvania 
Experiment  Station,  nitrogen  has  proved  to  be  a  valuable 
fertilizer  to  apply  to  an  orchard ;  potassium  has  not  uniformly 
shown  any  benefits;  and  the  use  of  phosphate  has  not  shown 
marked  benefits.  The  use  of  barnyard  manure  and  a  com- 
bined fertilizer  on  a  sod-mulch  orchard  gave  remarkably  bene- 
ficial results — very  much  more  beneficial  results  than  on  a 
cultivated  orchard  on  the  same  kind  of  soil.  In  fact,  the  use 
of  nitrogen-bearing  fertilizer  with  a  sod-mulch  seemed  entirely 
to  offset  the  lack  of  cultivation,  though  this  may  not  be  the 
case  under  other  circumstances.  At  no  experiment  station  has 
potash  shown  any  positive  effect  in  improving  the  color  of  fruit. 
It  would  seem  from  these  experiments  that  on  any  orchard 
soil  the  use  of  either  potassium  or  phosphorus  fertilizers  or 
both  may  be  profitable  if  either  or  both  of  these  elements 
are  deficient  in  the  soil.  Nitrogen  can  more  often  be  used 
with  profit  than  either  potassium  or  phosphorus.  It  is  found, 
however,  that  in  practically  all  cases  nitrogen  injiuiously 
affects  the  color  of  the  fruit.  At  the  Pennsylvania  Experi- 
ment Station  it  seemed  to  be  evident  that  the  use  of  potassium 
and  phosphate  combined  with  nitrogen  to  some  extent  reduces 
the  injiirious  effect  of  nitrogen.  Stable  manure,  though  more 
expensive  than  chemical  nitrogen,  seems  in  the  case  of  a  sod- 
mulch  orchard  to  give  more  beneficial  resiilts,  and  in  the  case 
of  a  cultivated  orchard  the  beneficial  results  from  the  use  of 
chemical  fertilizers  were. as  great  as  from  the  use  of  stable 
manure. 

56.  It  is  scarcely  possible  to  make  any  recommendations 
that  will  apply  to  all  soils.  However,  first  it  w^otdd  be  well 
for  the  orchardist  to  assimie  that  his  trees,  if  they  are  making 
a  good,  healthy  growth  and  bearing  well,  do  not  need  fer- 
tilizing; this  is  true,  also,  if  the  trees  are  not  bearing  well,  on 
account  of  frost,  insect,  or  fungous  injuries,  etc.  If  the  soil 
is  reasonably  fertile  and  the  orchard  neglected,  good  pruning, 


40  APPLE  CULTURE  §  5 

cultivation,  and  spraying  should  certainly  be  resorted  to 
before  fertilizing.  IJowever,  if  the  orchard  is  well  cared  for 
and  the  trees  are  not  sufficiently  vigorous,  it  may  be  profitable 
to  use  commercial  fertilizer,  especially  fertilizer  containing 
nitrogen.  In  all  cases  it  is  well  to  watch  the  results  that  are 
obtained  by  the  application  of  different  mixtiu-es  and  by  this 
means  determine  what  the  soil  needs.  The  following  is  sug- 
gested for  the  first  application:  Actual  nitrogen,  30  pounds 
per  acre;  actual  phosphoric  acid,  60  to  75  pounds  per  acre; 
actual  potash,  50  pounds  per  acre. 

These  amounts  of  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid,  and  potash 
can  be  secured  by  using  any  of  the  following  combinations: 

1.  Nitrate  of  soda  (15|  per  cent,  nitrogen),  100  pounds; 
dried  blood  (12|  per  cent,  nitrogen),  100  pounds;  steamed 
bone  meal  (24  per  cent,  phosphoric  acid  and  1  per  cent,  nitro- 
gen), 250  to  300  poimds;  sulphate  of  potash  (50  per  cent, 
potash)  100  pounds. 

2.  Nitrate  of  soda  (15  per  cent,  nitrogen),  100  pounds; 
dried  blood  (12|  per  cent,  nitrogen),  120  pounds;  acid  phos- 
phate (15  per  cent,  phosphoric  acid),  400  to  500  poimds;  std- 
phate  of  potash  (50  per  cent,  potash),  100  poimds. 

3.  A  6-12-10  fertihzer,  500  poimds. 

If  the  soil  is  known  to  be  high  in  either  phosphorus  or 
potash — ^that  is,  if  a  grain  or  vegetable  crop  will  not  respond 
vigorously  to  applications  of  either  phosphorus  or  potash — 
the  amounts  of  these  elements  could  be  greatly  reduced  in 
the  fertihzer  tried,  and  the  amount  of  nitrogen,  even  in  a  poor 
soil,  largely  reduced  by  substituting  leguminous  cover  crops. 
It  may  be  well  at  times  to  alternate  stable  manure  with  chem- 
ical fertihzers  the  first  and  third  years,  using  about  10  tons 
to  the  acre. 

57.  Time  of  Applying  Fertilizers. — It  is  not  possible 
to  give  absolute  directions  as  to  the  best  time  for  applying 
chemical  fertihzers,  because  various  conditions  will  require 
different  practices.  However,  so  far  as  experience  has  gone, 
it  seems  to  indicate  that  the  best  time  is  shortly  after  the 
blooming    period   of   the  trees.     Dried   blood  or  sulphate  or 


§  5  APPLE  CULTURE  41 

ammonia  miay  be  applied  earlier,  but  if  nitrate  of  soda  is  used 
it  should  be  applied  at  the  time  suggested,  for  at  this  time 
the  trees  can  make  use  of  it  readily  and  this  fertilizer  does  not 
remain  in  the  soil  for  any  great  length  of  time. 

58.  Fertilizing  of  Young  Trees. — In  a  great  many 
orchards  where  it  will  not  pay  to  fertilize  the  old  trees,  espe- 
cially in  the  case  of  nitrogen,  the  ill  effects  of  which  will  more 
than  offset  the  beneficial  results  it  will  pay  handsomely  to 
fertilize  young  trees,  at  the  time  of  setting,  with  about  1  to 
to  1|  pounds  of  dried  blood  or  |  to  f  pound  of  nitrate  of 
soda,  in  a  radius  of  1|  or  2  feet,  and  repeat  the  application 
the  second  year.  Of  course,  after  the  first  and  second  years 
the  amounts  of  :fertilizer  used  shotdd  be  increased,  since  the 
area  on  which  it  is  spread  will  be  larger  as  the  roots  grow. 
The  use  of  leguminous  crops  on  the  soil  may  entirely  replace 
the  use  of  nitrogen  in  many  cases. 


RENOVATION  OF  OLD  APPLE  ORCHARDS 

59.  The  renovation  of  old  apple  orchards  is  a  somewhat 
important  phase  of  orcharding  and  one  that  can  often  be  made 
profitable.  It  is  by  no  means  true  that  all  old,  neglected 
orchards  can  be  made  to  pay  satisfactory  returns  by  renova- 
tion. In  many  cases  neglect  has  gone  so  far  and  insect  and 
fungous  troubles  have  worked  such  havoc  that  time  and  money 
spent  in  renovation  would  be  largely  if  "not  wholly  wasted. 
But,  on  the  other  hand,  there  are  many  instances  in  which  a 
judicious  expenditure  in  the  renovation  of  an  old  orchard  has 
been  made  to  pay  handsome  returns.  Whether  or  not  renova- 
tion will  pay  in  any  particular  case  will  depend  on  numerous 
factors.  Perhaps  one  of  the  most  important  of  these  is  the 
question  of  capital  available.  In  many  cases  at  least  the 
first  year  after  renovation  begins  no  crop  can  be  expected, 
and  if  a  man  has  not  the  capital  to  give  the  orchard  this  nec- 
essary care  without  a  crop  to  defray  the  expenses,  he  should 
probably  hesitate  to  begin.  The  condition  of  the  trees  with 
reference  to  age,  vigor,  height,  shape  and  distance  apart,  are 


42        *  APPLE  CULTURE  §  5 

additional  factors  that  should  have  serious  consideration. 
If  the  trees  are  not  old,  for  example,  it  may  not  be  necessary 
to  lose  a  crop  in  order  to  get  them  back  into  good  condition. 
Especially  is  this  true  in  a  fairly  good  soil.  But  if  the  trees 
have  run  up  too  high  a  head  to  be  handled  profitably  they  will 
have  to  be  cut  back  and  the  center  to  some  extent  cut  out. 
This  treatment  may  involve  the  loss  of  the  crop  the  summer 
following  although  this  is  not  necessarily  the  case. 

60.  The  stand  of  trees  is  another  important  considera- 
tion in  determining  whether  it  will  pay  to  renovate  an  old 
orchard.  Generally  speaking,  unless  as  much  as  50  or  60 
per  cent,  of  the  trees  are  in  good,  healthy  condition,  and  15  or 
20  per  cent,  more  of  them  are  sufficiently  healthy  to  be  brought 
back  to  good  condition  by  careful  treatment,  it  will  hardly 
pay  to  attempt  to  bring  the  orchard  into  profitable  bearing, 
since  cultivation,  etc.  for  the  poor  stand  will  be  as  expensive 
as  for  a  good  stand. 

61.  The  kind  of  soil  on  which  the  old  orchard  is  located 
is  also  an  important  factor.  If  the  soil  is  not  a  reasonably 
good  orchard  soil,  generally  it  will  not  pay  to  go  to  the  expense 
of  renovating  an  old  orchard,  especially  if  the  soil  is  such  that 
it  could  be  profitably  devoted  to  some  other  crop.  Of  course, 
there  will  be  exceptions  to  this,  as  in  cases,  where  on  account 
of  good  local  markets,  an  orchard  would  be  profitable  even 
on  a  poor  orchard  soil. 

62.  The  question  of  being  located  where  there  is  reasona- 
ble certainty  of  getting  a  crop  nearly  every  year  is  of  very 
great  importance.  If  the  orchaid  is  located  in  a  valley  where 
there  is  almost  sure  to  be  frequent  damage  from  late  spring 
frosts,  it  will  generally  not  be  profitable  to  renovate  it  unless 
it  is  intended  to  make  use  of  orchard  heaters.  Generally 
speaking,  it  may  be  said  that  in  a  section  where  the  orchard 
is  run  down  because  there  had  been  so  many  crop  failures, 
that  is,  because  it  has  not  paid  to  keep  it  up,  it  would  not, 
as  a  rule,  be  advisable  to  spend  money  in  renovation. 


§  5  APPLE  CULTURE  43 

63.  The  prevalence  of  insect  pests  and  fungous  diseases, 
is  of  some  importance.  It  is  true  that  these  troubles  can  be 
successfully  combated  in  many  cases,  but  if  the  trees  are  badly 
injured  by  borers  or  other  insects  that  leave  permanent  injury 
to  the  bodies  of  the  trees,  or  if  the  orchard  is  badly  infected 
with  different  forms  of  apple  canker,  its  renovation  may  be 
inadvisable,  since  in  many  cases  it  would  be  impossible  to 
bring  the  trees  into  a  healthy  condition  and  keep  them  that 
way  for  any  length  of  time. 

64.  It  may  also  be  said  that  to  a  large  extent  the  success 
of  such  a  venture  will  depend  on  the  man  who  undertakes 
it.  It  will  require  a  man  who  is  fairly  well  acquainted  with 
the  orchard  business  and  who  knows  what  he  wants  to  do  in 
the  matter  of  renovating  the  orchard  to  get  the  best  results. 
He  should  also  be  very  certain  that  he  is  going  to  have  the  time 
and  inclination  to  give  the  orchard  the  necessary  care  after 
it  is  worked  over.  In  most  cases  it  has  been  observed  that 
if  the  orchard  is  under  new  management  the  renovation  is 
more  likely  to  be  thorough  and  effective,  and  the  trees  to  have 
the  necessary  care  than  if  the  man  who  has  been  neglecting 
it  undertakes  the  renovation. 

65.  Metliods  of  Renovating  an  Old  Apple  Orcliard. 

No  general  mles  can  be  laid  down  for  working  over  an  old 
orchard,  for  each  orchard  will  require  special  treatment,  depend- 
ing on  its  condition.  In  undertaking  any  renovating,  it  should 
be  the  intention  to  give  the  trees  the  best  of  care,  to  get 
the  soil  in  good  physical  condition,  and  generally  to  take  all 
necessary  measures  to  promote  as  healthy  a  growth  as  in  the 
case  of  growing  young  trees.  Dead  limbs  should  be  removed, 
and  it  is  likely  that  many  limbs  that  are  not  dead  should  be 
cut  out  in  order  to  give  room  for  others  and  bring  the  trees 
to  a  size  and  shape  that  will  permit  of  economical  spraying, 
thinning,  and  harvesting.  Undesirable  stubs,  splinters,  etc. 
that  have  resulted  from  improper  pruning  or  breaking  of  limbs 
by  winds  or  other  causes  should  be  removed  and  all  wounds 
painted.  The  severity  of  the  treatment  will  depend  on  the 
condition  of   the    orchard.     As  suggested,  a  young  orchard, 

248—17 


44 


APPLE  CULTURE 


especially  if  it  is  not  badly  infected  with  canker  or  seriously 
infested  with  insects  like  borers  or  fruit-tree  bark  beetles,  does 
not  need  anything  like  so  severe  cutting  as  an  old  orchard. 
Often  merely  thinning  and  cutting  out  to  the  proper  shape, 
getting  the  soil  in  good  condition,  and  beginning  the  practice 
of  spraying  will  be  sufficient  to  bring  the  orchard  into  healthy 
condition.  On  the  other  hand,  where  the  orchard  is  badly 
injured,  severe  cutting  may  be  necessary. 

66.     In  many  oases  the  trees  will  be  set  too  close  and  it 
may  be  necessary  to  cut  out  some  of  them,  but  the  orchardist 


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Fig.  10 

should  carefiilly  consider  whether  it  will  be  better  to  cut  out 
some  of  the  trees  or  cut  all  of  them  back  severely  and  keep 
them  dowti  in  size.  It  is  not  advisable  to  attempt  to  grow 
trees  too  large  on  a  thin  soil.  Small  trees  can  be  more  prof- 
itably handled  than  large  ones,  provided  there  are  enough 
trees  on  the  ground  to  make  up  for  the  lack  of  size.  In  any 
soil  a  distance  of  25  feet  each  way  is  sufficient  if  the  trees  are 


APPLE  CULTURE 


45 


kept  down  in  size.  However,  in  many  cases  it  is  unquestion- 
ably necessary  to  cut  out  some  of  the  trees.  If  the  orchard  is 
set  in  hexagonal  form  it  is  usually  a  good  plan  to  cut  out  every 
other  row;  if  the  trees  are  set  in  the  square  form  it  may 
be  better  to  cut  out  alternate  trees  in  each  row,  as  indi- 
cated in  Fig.  10,  in  which  r  designates  the  trees  that  are  to  be 
removed.  In  shaping  the  remaining  trees,  if  they  are  young 
and  it  is  desired  to  prune  them  to  an  open  head,  the  center 


Fig.  U 


may  be  cut  out  say  8  or  10  feet  high  and  all  the  weaker  limbs 
and  some  of  the  superfluous  stronger  ones  cut  out  so  as  to 
leave  only  six  or  seven  limbs  that  are  well  spaced  around  the 
body  of  the  tree.  Usually  five  or  six  limbs  will  be  sufficient, 
and  these  should  be  shortened  back  a  little  to  make  them 
stocky  and  to  make  them  push  out  new  growth  further  down 
the  limb. 


4G 


APPLE  CULTURE 


§5 


In  Fig.  11  is  shown  a  tree  in  which  five  hmbs  have  been 
retained  and  the  points  to  which  these  limbs  are  to  be  cut 
back  are  indicated  at  a.  Old  and  badly  neglected  trees  should 
be  cut  back  rather  severely.  A  tree  of  this  kind  is  illustrated 
in  Fig.  12,  and  the  extent  to  which  it  may  be  advisable  to  cut 
it  back  is  shown  by  the  white  line  drawn  through  the  head. 
It  will  also  be  advisable  to  thin  out  the  limbs  considerably  in 
the  center  to  form,  to  some  extent,  an  open  head. 


*'..i«iiiillli 


■■'■iiiriiiSiiiiiH 


Wm 


Fig.  12 


67.  As  an  illustration  of  the  severe  cutting  back  that  was 
necessary  in  a  certain  old  orchard,  the  views  shown  in  Figs.  13 
and  14  are  of  interest.  Fig.  13  shows  the  orchard  before 
prunning  and  well  illustrates  the  extreme  height  and  undesira- 
ble form  commonly  assumed  by  neglected  apple  trees.  In 
Fig.  14  is  shown  a  view  of  the  same  trees  after  they  were  pruned. 
It  will  be  seen  that  the  high  limbs  have  been  shortened  back 
and  much  of  the  thick,  bushy  growth  removed.     In  the  case 


47 


48 


§5  APPLE    CULTURE  49 

of  such  trees  as  are  shown  in  Fig.  14  it  would  undoubtedly 
be  advisable  to  still  further  reduce  the  length  of  the  highest 
limbs,  but  to  avoid  injury  to  the  trees  from  excessively  severe 
pruning  the  latter  work  may  be  delayed  2  or  3  years  or  until 
the  trees  have  somewhat  recovered  from  the  shock  of  the  first 
pruning. 

Severe  pruning  should  be  done  somewhat  gradually;  that 
is,  it  is  better  to  do  a  part  of  it  each  year  for  2  or  3  years 
than  to  do  it  all  in  a  single  season.  In  the  case  of  trees  that 
require  very  severe  pruning,  it  is  often  advisable  to  leave  more 
of  the  lower  limbs  than  will  be  desired  in  the  renovated  tree. 
Later,  when  the  tree  has  put  out  new  top  growth,  the  super- 
fluous lower  limbs  may  be  removed. 

Another  point  to  be  avoided  in  severe  pruning  operations 
is  the  making  of  numerous  large  wounds  close  together.  If 
this  is  done  the  effect  is  somewhat  the  same  as  girdling  the 
tree.  If  it  is  found  necessary  to  remove  several  large  limbs 
that  join  the  trunk  close  together,  the  danger  of  girdling  may 
be  avoided  by  cutting  some  of  them  in  such  a  way  as  to  leave 
a  stub  1  or  2  feet  long.  Later,  when  the  wounds  on  the  trunk 
have  healed  or  are  nearly  healed  the  stubs  should  be  sawed  off 
close  to  the  trunk.  All  large  wounds  made  in  this  work 
should  be  painted  each  year  until  entirely  healed. 

68.     Soil    Treatment    for    Renovated    Orcliards. — In 

working  over  an  old  orchard,  the  owner  should  bear  in  mind 
the  practices  that  have  been  recommended  for  the  general 
care  of  an  apple  orchard.  If  the  soil  is  badly  run  down,  prob- 
ably the  most  desirable  thing  would  be  to  grow  a  crop  of  cow- 
peas  or  vetch  or  some  other  leguminous  crop  for  the  sake  of 
its  beneficial  effect  on  the  soil.  The  use  of  orchard  fertilizers 
may  in  some  cases  be  resorted  to  and  in  all  probability 
there  is  no  time  when  fertilizing  will  pay  better  than  at  the 
beginning  of  the  spring  after  the  trees  have  been  cut  back 
in  winter;  especially  is  the  use  of  barnyard  manure  or  nitrog- 
enous fertilizer  to  be  recommended  then.  In  a  soil  very 
low  in  any  other  essential  material,  as  potassium  or  phos- 
phorus, these  should  be  applied  to  secure  best  results  from 


50  APPLE  CULTURE  §5 

the  nitrogen.  In  many  cases,  resorting  to  winter  cover  crops 
will  show  very  marked  benefits,  especially  in  the  case  of  a  soil 
on  a  south  hill  slope,  and  the  use  of  cover  crops  should  certainly 
be  part  of  the  system  of  management  if  the  orchard  is  located 
on  a  hillside. 

69.  Spraying  Metliods  for  Renovated  Orchards. — It 

will  generally  be  profitable  to  give  a  dormant  spraying  for 
old,  neglected  trees  in  a  renovated  orchard.  When  serious 
pests  such  as  San  Jose  scale  are  present  they  should  be  com- 
bated as  directed  in  another  Section.  A  very  heavy  dormant 
spray  should  be  given  for  insects  that  will  be  nestled  in  the 
bark,  and  for  spores  of  fungi.  This  will  be  beneficial  also  in 
clearing  the  bark  of  algse  and  lichens  that  grow  on  it.  Even 
after  an  orchard  has  been  cut  back  so  severely  that  no  crop 
is  expected,  at  least  one  spraying  to  keep  apple  scab  and  other 
fungous  diseases  off  the  foliage  might  be  made  to  give  the 
orchard  the  very  best  opportunity  to  make  a  good  growth 
the  first  summer.  Even  if  the  orchard  does  not  have  a  crop, 
it  should  have  the  same  care  the  second  summer  after  renova- 
tion as  would  be  given  to  any  bearing  apple  orchard. 

70.  Top  Working  of  Trees. — In  many  cases  the  varie- 
ties found  in  an  old  orchard  will  not  be  those  that  are  profi- 
table. In  other  cases  the  orchard  may  be  made  up  of  a  single 
variety  that  is  self-sterile,  so  that  the  introduction  of  some 
other  variety  for  cross-fertilization  is  necessary.  There  are 
undoubtedly  many  orchards  that  are  failures  because  of  lack 
of  proper  pollination,  and  in  going  over  an  old  orchard  the 
varieties  should  be  carefully  studied  with  reference  to  this 
question.  If  necessary,  varieties  should  be  selected  that  are 
known  to  be  satisfactory  for  the  cross-pollination  of  the 
varieties  predominating  in  the  orchard,  and  the  former 
should  be  top-worked  into  the  latter.  The  time  for  doing 
this  will  vary  from  late  winter,  say  the  latter  part  of 
February  or  any  time  in  March,  up  to  possibly  the  middle  of 
May,  in  the  northern  section  of  the  country,  though  early  spring 
grafting  is  usually  considered  best. 


§  5  APPLE  CULTURE  51 

In  working  over  the  trees  the  grafts  should  be  set  in  stubs 
that  are  directed  outwards  and  will  form  desirable  limbs. 
The  limbs  in  the  center  that  are  not  wanted  may  well  be 
left  temporarily  as  sap  pullers — that  is,  for  the  purpose  of 
furnishing  foliage  to  supply  nourishment;  they  should  be  cut 
out  when  they  have  served  the  purpose.  The  first  season 
after  the  grafts  have  been  set  they  should  make  a  large  growth. 
Many  water  sprouts  will  come  from  the  old  stubs ;  those  at  the 
end  of  the  stub  should  be  carefully  rubbed  off  so  they  will  not 
interfere  with  the  growth  of  the  grafts.  Part  of  those  along 
the  side  of  the  limb  may  also  be  rubbed  off;  it  is  often  desira- 
able  to  leave  some  of  the  water  sprouts  and  either  to  bud  them 
in  the  summer  with  the  same  varieties  as  the  grafts  inserted 
or  to  whip-graft  on  them  the  winter  following. 

If  more  than  one  of  the  grafts  on  the  end  of  a  stub  live, 
probably  some  of  them  should  be  kept  cut  back  to  give  one 
the  advantage,  and  usually  after  a  few  years  when  the  stub 
is  about  healed  over  all  except  one  may  be  cut  off.  The  tree 
should  then  be  kept  pruned  as  much  as  it  would  be  in  the 
case  of  a  good  open-headed  tree ;  it  should  be  kept  from  becom- 
ing too  dense  in  the  center,  and  after  the  grafts  have  made  con- 
siderable growth,  say  after  3  or  4  years,  it  should  be  clipped 
back  a  little  each  year  to  keep  it  from  getting  too  tall  and  to 
to  keep  the  growth  down  on  the  tree. 


APPLE  PESTS  AND  INJURIES 


INJURIES  DUE  TO  LOW  TEMPERATURE 


INJURIES  DURING  DORMANT  PERIOD  OF  PLANTS 

1.  Killing  of  Fruit  Buds. — Severe,  winter  weather  may 
cause  various  degrees  of  injury  to  fruit  buds.  The  degree  of 
the  injury  depends  on  the  temperature,  the  prevalence  of  winds, 
whether  the  air  is  dry  or  moist,  the  condition  of  the  tree  at  the 
beginning  of  cold  weather,  and  probably  other  factors  or  con- 
ditions that  are  not  known.  If  the  injury  is  very  severe  the 
fruit  buds  and  the  fruit  spurs,  of  those  trees  that  bear  fruit 
spurs,  may  be  killed.  In  less  severe  cases  the  fruit  buds  only 
are  entirely  killed.  In  the  latter  cases  the  buds  turn  brown 
throughout  and  do  not  open  at  the  time  for  blossoming.  In 
other  cases  the  injury  is  less  severe  and  the  buds  open  into 
blossoms,  but  many  of  the  pistils,  or  the  central  portion  of 
each  blossom  which,  if  uninjured,  matures  into  the  fruit,  are 
killed.  In  Fig.  1  are  shown  several  blossoms,  two  in  cross- 
section,  one  of  these  having  a  small  brown  or  black  pistil  a 
which  has  been  frozen,  and  the  other  a  healthy  green  pistil  b. 

2.  Killing  of  Twigs  and  Large  Stems. — The  killing  of 
the  wood  of  trees,  like  the  killing  of  the  buds,  depends  on 
various  factors,  the  most  important  of  which  are  the  condition 
of  the  tree  at  the  time  that  cold  weather  arrives,  intense  cold, 
very  wet  soil,  and  the  heaving  of  land  by  frost. 

Dead  wood  is  darker  than  live,  active  wood  and  usually  can 
be  easily  recognized.     If  the  wood  is  killed  during  the  early 

COPYRIGHTED    BY   INTERNATIONAU   TEXTBOOK    COMPANY.      AUU    RIQHTS    REeERVED 

§6 


APPLE  PESTS  AND  INJURIES 


6 


part  of  the  winter  the  injury  is  probably  caused  by  cold  weather 
coming  before  the  trees  have  reached  a  sufficiently  dormant 
state  to  withstand  the  cold.  At  the  time  the  leaves  fall,  espe- 
cially if  they  are  killed  by  frost,  the  trees  cannot  withstand 
nearly  so  low  a  temperature  as  they  can  a  month  later.  That 
is,  the  trees  must  be  allowed  several  weeks  after  the  leaves  fall 
in  which  to  attain  a  dormant  condition  so  that  they  can  with- 
stand severe  cold  without  injury.  In  those  regions  of  the 
United  States  and  Canada  where  severe  cold  weather  is 
likely  to  occur  in  the  early  part  of  the  winter,  it  is  advi- 
sable for  the  fruit  grower  to  resort  to  methods  of  culture 

that  will  force  the  trees 
into  an  early  dormant 
condition.  This  end  is 
usually  obtained  by  stop- 
ping cultivation  and  by 
planting,  usually  in 
August,  a  cover  crop  that 
^^*  will  make  a  rapid  growth 
during  the  autumn. 

If  the  wood  is  killed 
during  the  latter  part  of 
winter,  the  injury  is  pro- 
bably caused  by  a  very 
cold  period  that  lasts  for 
several  weeks,  during 
which  time  the  twigs  and 
limbs  lose  much  mois- 
ture by  evaporation,  and  as  the  branches  are  frozen  they  can- 
not take  up  moisture  to  replace  that  which  was  evaporated. 

It  has  been  observed  that  the  greatest  injury  from  winter- 
killing of  fruit  trees  occurs  in  orchards  that  are  not  well  drained 
and  to  those  trees  that  stand  in  low  or  wet  places  in  orchards 
that  are  otherwise  well  drained.  In  such  cases  the  trees  are  kept 
in  a  growing  condition  until  late  in  the  fall  and  do  not  attain 
a  sufficiently  dormant  condition  by  the  time  cold  weather 
arrives.  A  very  wet  soil  in  an  orchard  can  usually  be  bene- 
fited by  thorough  and  proper  drainage. 


Fig.  1 


§  G  APPLE  PESTS  AND  INJURIES  3 

3.  Killing  of  Roots. — The  roots  of  fruit  trees  will  gener- 
ally not  survive  a  temperature  lower  than  from  25°  to  22°  F. 
Therefore,  if  the  roots  are  exposed  to  the  air  they  will  be  killed 
by  the  winter  temperature  in  almost  any  apple-growing  section 
in  the  United  States  or  Canada,  but  the  temperature  of  the 
soil  does  not  fall  nearly  so  low  as  that  of  the  air  and  rarely 
becomes  low  enough  to  kill  tree  roots.  In  fact,  it  is  desirable 
that  a  few  inches  of  the  surface  soil  be  frozen  during  the  winter, 
as  such  freezing  has  a  tendency  to  force  the  trees  into  a  dormant 
condition.  It  has  been  observed  that  if  a  heavy  fall  of  snow 
occurs  before  the  soil  freezes  the  soil  does  not  become  frozen, 
and  more  trees  are  killed  than  if  the  soil  freezes.  However, 
there  is  more  danger  from  winter-killing  of  the  roots  if  the  soil 
freezes  several  feet  deep  than  if  only  from  4  to  6  inches  at  the 
surface  becomes  frozen,  because  the  deeper  the  ground  freezes 
the  colder  the  frozen  portion  becomes. 


INJURIES  DURING  THE  PERIOD  OF  VISIBLE 
ACTIVITY  OF  PLANTS 

4.  The  injuries  that  occur  to  plants  while  they  are  in  a 
noticeably  active  condition,  that  is,  after  the  buds  have  begun 
to  swell  in  the  spring  and  until  the  plants  have  assumed  a  dor- 
mant condition  in  the  fall,  are  commonly  known  as  frost 
injuries,  although  injuries  that  are  caused  by  freezing  temper- 
ature but  without  the  deposits  of  frosts  may  occur  at  this 
time  of  the  year. 

5.  Frost  Dijury  to  Apple  Buds. — Ordinarily,  fruit  buds 
are  not  injured  by  the  low  temperatures  that  usually  accompany 
spring  -frosts.  However,  if  spring  frosts  are  accompanied  by 
such  low  temperatures  that  it  is  customary  to  speak  of  them 
as  freezes,  rather  than  as  frosts,  the  unopened  buds  may  be 
killed.  Apple  buds,  even  after  they  are  open  far  enough  for 
the  white  color  of  the  petals  to  show  at  the  tip  of  the  buds, 
are  not  often  seriously  injured  by  a  temperature  of  25°  F. 
However,  instances  are  on  record  where  a  temperature  as 
low  as  18°  F.  has  occurred  after  the  color  of  the  petals  was 


APPLE  PESTS  AND  INJURIES 


6 


distinguishable  without  seriously  injuring  the  buds.  But,  in 
such  cases,  a  combination  of  unusual  conditions  may  have 
existed  that  prevented  the  killing  of  the  pistils  of  the  fruit  buds. 
It  is  safe  to  say,  however,  that  apple  buds,  after  the  white 
begins  to  show  at  the  tips  of  the  buds,  are  nearly  always  killed, 
or  at  least  seriously  injured,  by  a  temperature  of  20°  F.  or  less. 

6.  Frost  Inj  ury  to  Apple  Blossoms . — It  is  not  definitely 
known  exactly  how  low  a  temperature  apple  blossoms  will 
endure  without  injury.  But  a  careful  observer  and  investi- 
gator states  that  while  blossoms  are  fully  expanded  a  com- 


FiG.  2 


paratively  light  frost  will  kill  them  and  that  a  temperature 
of  28°  F.  is  nearly  always  fatal.  Apple  blossoms  are  more 
easily  killed  than  are  peach  blossoms,  although  the  peach  crop 
is  more  often  killed  by  spring  frosts  than  is  the  apple  crop. 
This  is  due,  however,  to  the  fact  that  peach  trees  usually  bloom 
earlier  in  the  season  than  do  apple  trees.  Sometimes  there  is 
apparently  a  second  crop  of  apple  blossoms  that  appears  after 
the  first  crop  has  been  killed  by  frost.  In  many  cases,  however, 
the  so-called  second  crop  of  blossoms  is  simply  those  blossoms 
that  would  normally  have  come  out  a  little  late.  In  other  cases 
the  late  blossoms  develop  from  those  buds  that  formed  in  the 
axils  of  the  leaves  the  previous  year. 


G 


APPLE  PESTS  AND  INJURIES 


.3;^,, 


7.  Frost  Injury  to  Young  Apples. — After  the  blossoms 
have  fallen  and  the  young  apples  have  set,  the  fruit  may  not 
suffer  from  severe  freezes.  The  claim  has  even  been  made  by 
some  observers  that  fruit  shortly  after  it  has  set  will  not  be 
seriously  injured  by  being  ^ 

frozen    solid.      Recovery  ^k 

from  such  freezes  certainly 
cannot  always  be  the  case, 
because  it  is  a  fairly  well- 
established  fact  that  the 
injury  such  as  is  shown  on 
the  young  apples  in  Fig.  2 
was  caused  by  frost.  Such 
apples  often  continue  to 
grow,  but  the  mature  apples 
will  show  a  russet,  corky 
zone,  as  illustrated  in  Fig.  3. 
Other  observers  and  investi- 
gators claim  that  very  young 
apples,  that  is,  apples  imme- 
diately after  the  blossoms  have  fallen  and  the  fruit  is  said  to 
have  set,  are  more  easily  injured  by  frost  than  are  the  blossoms. 
Newly-set  apples  are  certainly  very  likely  to  be  killed  by  a 
temperature  of  from  30°  to  28°  F. 


Fig.  3 


APPLE  PESTS  AND  INJURIES 


§6 


PREVENTION  OF  FROST  INJURIES 

8.  More  or  less  moisture  always  exists  in  the  atmosphere 
in  the  form  of  an  invisible  vapor.  When  this  invisible  vapor 
is  condensed  by  a  falling  temperature,   clouds,  or  fogs,  are 

formed;  if  the  moisture  in  the  clouds 
is  further  condensed  at  a  temperature 
above  the  freezing  point  rain  is  formed; 
and  if  condensed  at  a  temperature  at 
or  below  the  freezing  point  snow  is  formed.     If 
the  moisture  of  the  atmosphere  that  is  in  imme- 
diate contact  with  the  surface  of  the  earth  is 
condensed   at  temperatures  above  the  freezing 
point,  dew  is  formed,  and  if  this  moisture  is  con- 
densed at  or  below  a  freezing  temperature  frost  is 
formed.     Frost  is,  therefore,  the  moisture  of  the 
air  condensed  at  or  below  32°  F.  on  the  surface 
of  the  earth  or  on  plants  or  other  objects. 


9.     Prediction   of  Frost. — The   conditions 
under  which  damaging  frosts  may  occur  are  so 
nimierous  and  varied  that  it  is  very  difficiolt  to 
tell  when  frosts  will  occur  and  when  they  wiU 
not.     However,  frost  may  be  expected  during  the 
HI     I    III     ^^^^^  ^'  ^^  nightfall,  the  dew  point  is  42°  F.  or 
less.     The  dew  point  is  the  temperature  of  the 
air  at  which  dew  is  deposited.     And  when  the 
dew  point  falls  to  32°  F.  or  lower,  frost  will  occur. 
The  dew  point  is  determined  by  means  of  wet- 
bulb  and  dry-bulb  thermometers  and  a  specially 
prepared  table  known  as  a  dew-point  table. 
The  most  accurate  kind  of  an  instrument  for  the  determina- 
tion of  the  dew  point  is  shown  in  Fig.  4  (a),  and  is  known 
as  a  sling  psychrometer.     This  instrument  consists  of  a  wet- 
bulb    and   a   dry-bulb   thermometer,    securely  fastened   to  a 


§6 


APPLE  PESTS  AND  INJURIES 


support,  which,  in  turn,  is  attached  to  a  handle  in  such  a  way 
that  the  thermometers  and  their  support  may  be  whirled  on 
one  end  of  the  handle.  A  case  in  which  the  sling  psychrometer 
may  be  kept  while  not  in  use  is  shown  in  (6) .  The  bulb  of  one 
of  the  thermometers  is  covered  with  a  thin  piece  of  cloth  and 
just  before  it  is  used  this  bulb  is  dipped  in  a  cup  of  water  and 

TABLE  I 

DETERMINATION    OF    THE    DEW    POINT 


Difference  in  the 

Reading  of  the 

Dry-  and 

Wet-Bulb 

Thermometers 

Degrees  F. 


I 

2 

3 
4 
5 
6 

7 
8 

9 

ID 
II 
12 
13 

14 
15 


Reading  of  Dry-Bulb  Thermometer.    Degrees  F. 


15     20     25     30     35     40     45     50     55     60     65     70 


Degrees  of  Temperature  F.  at  Which  Dew  is  Deposited 


II 

16 

22 

27 

32 

38 

43 

48 

53 

58 

63 

6 

12 

18 

24 

30 

35 

41 

46 

52 

57 

62 

7 

14 

21 

27 

33 

39 

44 

50 

55 

60 

I 

10 

17 

24 

30 

36 

42 

48 

53 

59 

4 

13 

20 

27 

33 

40 

46 

51 

57 

7 

16 

24 

30 

37 

43 

49 

55 

I 

II 

20 

27 

34 

41 

47 

53 

5 

16 

24 

31 

39 

45 

51 

II 

20 

28 

36 

43 

49 

4 

16 
II 

4 

25 
21 

17 
II 

5 

33 
30 

27 

23 
18 
12 

40 
38 
35 
32 
28 
24 

47 
45 
42 
40 

37 
34 

69 
67 

66 
64 
62 
61 
59 
57 
55 
53 
51 
49 
47 
45 
42 


the  cloth  covering  thoroughly  saturated;  hence,  the  name  wet 
bulb.  Care  must  be  used  to  avoid  getting  water  on  the  naked, 
or  dry,  bulb.  The  instrument  is  then  whirled  rapidly  for 
from  15  to  20  seconds  and  the  temperature  of  the  wet-bulb 
thermometer  noted;  the  whirling  and  the  noting  of  the  tem- 
perature of  the  wet -bulb  thermometer  is  repeated  until  the 

248—18 


8  APPLE  PESTS  AND  INJURIES  §  6 

temperature  is  the  same  at  two  consecutive  readings.  This 
temperature,  unless  the  air  is  saturated,  will  be  less  than  that 
of  the  dry-bulb  thermometer,  and  the  difference  between  the 
reading  of  the  wet-bulb  and  that  of  the  dry-bulb  thermometer 
should  be  accurately  determined.  After  these  data  are  secured, 
the  dew  point  may  be  determined  by  the  aid  of  Table  I  as  follows : 
If  the  temperature  of  the  dry-bulb  thermometer  is  49°  F.  and 
the  temperature  of  the  wet-bulb  thermometer  is  41°  F.,  the 
difference  in  temperature  is  8°  F.  The  dew  point  will  be  found 
in  the  table  at  the  intersection  of  the  horizontal  row  in  which  8 
occurs  in  the  column  of  figures  at  the  left  side  of  the  table  and 
the  vertical  column  headed  by  the  number  nearest  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  dry-bulb  thermometer,  50°.  The  dew  point  in  this 
case  would  be  31°  F.,  and  frost  should  be  expected  to  occiu" 
that  night. 

10.  Average    Dates    of  tlie    Occurrence   of    Frosts. 

Table  II,  which  is  taken  from  the  United  States  Weather 
Bureau  reports,  shows  the  date  of  the  latest  recorded  killing 
frost  in  spring,  the  date  of  the  earliest  recorded  killing  frost  in 
autumn,  the  average  date  of  the  occurrence  of  the  last  killing 
frost  in  the  spring,  and  the  average  date  of  the  occurrence  of 
the  first  killing  frost  in  autumn  at  various  points  in  different 
states  in  the  United  States. 

11.  Factors  Affecting  tlie  Occurrence  of  Killing 
Frosts. — Certain  factors  such  as  the  altitude,  the  latitude,  the 
topography  of  the  land,  the  position  in  relation  to  large  or  deep 
bodies  of  water,  and  the  motion  of  the  air  all  exert  their  influence 
on  the  occurrence  of  frosts  in  any  locality.  The  humidity  of 
the  air  is  also  a  factor  that  exerts  an  influence  on  the  occurrence 
of  killing  frosts.  If  the  air  is  saturated,  that  is,  if  it  contains 
all  the  moisture  it  will  hold,  there  is  little  danger  from  frost  so 
long  as  the  temperature  of  the  air  remains  above  the  freezing 
point.  If  the  temperature  is  at  or  below  the  freezing  point, 
a  saturated  atmosphere  may  retard  frosts  to  a  certain  extent, 
but  just  how  much  is  not  known. 

The  reason  that  saturated  air  may  prevent  injury  from  frosts 
is  that  evaporation  of  moisture  from  a  plant  takes  place  readily 


TABLE  II 
DATES    OF    LATE    SPRING    AND    EARLY    AUTUMN    FROSTS 


Station 


Alabama : 

Mobile 

Montgomery 

Arizona : 

Phoenix 

Yuma 

Arkansas : 

Fort  Smith 

Little  Rock 

California: 

Eureka 

Fresno 

Los  Angeles 

Red  Bluff 

Sacramento 

San  Diego 

San  Francisco 

San  Luis  Obispo . . 
Colorado : 

Denver 

Grand  Junction. . . 

Pueblo 

Connecticut : 

New  Haven 

District  of  Columbia 

Washington 

Florida: 

Jacksonville 

Jupiter 

Pensacola 

Tampa 

9 


Date  of 
Latest 
Recorded 
Killing 
Frost  in 
Spring 


Mar.  28 
Apr.  5 

Mar.  31 
None 

Apr.  6 
Apr.  14 

May  I 
Apr.  14 
Apr.  8 
Apr.  25 
Apr.  26 
None 
Apr.  20 
Apr.  8 

June  6 
May  15 
May  23 

May  30 

May  II 

Apr.  6 
Apr.  7 
Apr.  6 
Mar.  19 


Date  of 
Earliest 

Recorded 
Killing 
Frost  in 

Autumn 


Oct.  31 
Oct.  21 

Nov.  9 

None 

Oct.  15 
Oct.  22 

Nov.  7 
Nov.  18 
None 
Nov.  15 
Oct.  28 
None 
Nov.  18 
Nov.  19 

Sept.  12 
Sept.  27 
Sept.  12 

Sept.  15 

Oct.  2 

Nov.  12 
Nov.  18 
Nov.  12 
Nov.  28 


Average 

Date  of 

Last 

Killing 
Frost  in 

Spring 


Feb. 24 
Mar.  II 

Feb.  18 
None 

Mar.  4 
Mar.  20 

Apr.  2 
Mar.  4 
Apr.  8 
Feb. 26 
Feb. 16 
None 
Jan.  8 
Feb.  20 

May  6 
Apr.  14 
Apr.  26 

Apr.  20 

Apr.  7 

Feb. 14 
Feb.  14 
Feb.  23 
Feb.  8 


Average: 
Date  of. 
First 
Killing- 
Frost  in 
Autumn 


Nov.  30 
Nov.  & 

Dec.  7 

None 

Nov.  4 
Nov.  10 

Dec.  8 
Dec.  15 
None 
Dec.  6 
Nov.  15 
None 
Dec.  26 
Dec.  27 

Oct.  5 
Oct.  21 
Oct.  5 

Oct.  17 

Oct.  21 

Dec.  6 
Dec.  29 
Dec.  5 
Jan.  9 


TABLE  H — (Continued) 


Station 


Georgia : 

Atlanta 

Augusta 

Macon 

Savannah . . . 
Illinois : 

Cairo 

Chicago 

Springfield . . 
Indiana : 

Evansville . . . 

Indianapolis . 
Iowa: 

Davenport . . 

Des  Moines. 

Dubuque. . .  . 

Keokuk 

Sioux  City. . 
Kansas : 

Concordia.  .  . 

Dodge 

Topeka . . 

Wichita 

Kentucky : 

Lexington . . . 

Louisville . . . 
Louisiana : 

New  Orleans 

Shreveport . . 
Maine : 

Eastport 

Portland 


Date  of 

Latest 
Recorded 

Killing 
Frost  in 

Spring 

Date  of 
Earliest 
Recorded 
Killing 
Frost  in 
Autumn 

Average 

Date  of 

Last 

Killing 
Frost  in 

Spring 

Apr.  15 

Oct.  II 

Mar.  24 

Apr.  17 

Oct.  8 

Mar.  20 

Apr.  18 

Nov.  5 

Mar.  15 

Apr.  5 

Nov.  I 

Feb.  27 

Apr.  19 

Sept.  30 

Mar.  29 

May  29 

Sept.  18 

Apr.  18 

May  22 

Sept.  25 

Apr.  20 

Apr.  21 

Sept.  30 

Apr.  10 

May  21 

Sept.  21 

Apr.  16 

May  22 

Sept.  18 

Apr.  22 

May  22 

Sept.  12 

Apr.  28 

May  21 

Sept.  27 

Apr.  20 

May  4 

Sept.  18 

Apr.  13 

May  2 1 

Sept.  13 

May  I 

May  19 

Sept.  27 

Apr.  24 

May  27 

Sept.  23 

Apr.  17 

May  19 

Sept.  28 

Apr.  8 

May  15 

Sept.  23 

Apr.  6 

May  20 

Sept.  30 

Apr.  18 

May  14 

Sept.  24 

Apr.  6 

Mar.  27 

Nov.  19 

Jan.  24 

Apr.  2 

Oct.  20 

Mar.  4 

June  19 

Sept.  8 

Apr.  28 

May  31 

Sept.  II 

Apr.  14 

Average 
Date  of 

First 
Killing 
Frost  in 
Autumn 


Nov.  7 
Nov.  9 
Nov.  14 
Nov.  26 

Oct.  28 
Oct.  15 
Oct.  16 

Oct.  30 
Oct.  19 

Oct.  14 
Oct.  8 
Oct.  13 
Oct.  15 
Sept.  27 

Oct.  14 
Oct.  15 
Oct.  13 
Oct.  19 

Oct.  23 
Oct.  29 

Dec.  15 
Nov.  II 

Oct.  12 
Oct.  18 

10 


TABLE  II — {Continued) 


Station 


Maryland : 

Baltimore 

Massachusetts : 

Boston 

Nantucket 

Michigan : 

Alpena 

Detroit 

Escanaba 

Grand  Haven .  . .  . 

Marquette 

Port  Huron 

Sault  Ste.  Marie. 
Minnesota : 

Duluth 

Minneapolis 

Moorhead 

St.  Paul 

Mississippi : 

Meridian 

Vicksburg 

Missouri : 

Columbia 

Hannibal 

Kansas  City 

Springfield 

St.  Louis 

Montana : 

Havre 

Helena 

Nebraska : 

Lincoln 

North  Platte 


Date  of 
Latest 
Recorded 
Killing 
Frost  in 
Spring 

Date  of 
Earliest 
Recorded 
Killing 
Frost  in 
Autumn 

Average 

Date  of 

Last 

Killing 
Frost  in 

Spring 

May  3 

Oct.  6 

Apr.  4 

May  II 

Sept.  30 
Oct.  I 

Apr.  26 

Apr.  24 

iVpr.  10 

June  9 

Sept.  6 

May  14 

May  31 

Sept.  21 

Apr.  30 

June  16 

Sept.  9 

May  14 

May  28 

Sept.  23 

Apr.  28 

June  II 

Aug.  22 

May  15 

June  6 

Sept.  22 

May  8 

May  29 

Sept.  5 

May  16 

June  8 

Sept.  15 

May  3 

May  20 

Sept.  13 

Apr.  27 

June  8 

Aug.  25 

May  14 

May  25 

Sept.  20 

May  6 

Apr.  10 

Oct.  8 

Mar.  20 

Apr.  6 

Oct.  19 

Mar.  6 

May  9 

Sept.  28 

Apr.  14 

May  14 

Sept.  30 

Apr.  14 

May  4 

Sept.  30 

Apr.  10 

May  19 

Sept.  30 

Apr.  16 

May  22 

Sept.  30 

Apr.  2 

June  6 

Aug.  27 

May  14 

June  9 

Sept.  5 

May  10 

May  10 

Sept.  12 

Apr.  18 

May  23 

Sept.  10 

May  I 

Average 
Date  of 
First 
Killing 
Frost  in 
Autumn 


Nov.  4 

Oct.  22 

Nov.  5 

Sept.  26 
Oct.  II 
Oct.  I 
Oct.  10 
Oct.  2 
Oct.  9 
Sept.  24 

Oct.  5 
Oct.  8 
Sept.  22 
Oct.  5 

Nov.  2 
Nov.  12 

Oct.  15 
Oct.  15 
Oct.  24 
Oct.  13 
Oct.  27 

Sept.  13 
Sept.  25 

Oct.  9 
Sept.  28 


TABLE  II — {Continued) 


Station 


Nebraska — Continued 

Omaha 

Valentine 

New  Mexico: 

Santa  Fe 

Nevada: 

Winnemucca 

New  Jersey : 

Atlantic  City 

New  York: 

Albany 

Binghamton 

Buffalo 

New  York 

Oswego 

Rochester 

North  Carolina: 

Charlotte 

Hatteras 

Raleigh 

Wilmington 

North  Dakota: 

Bismarck 

Williston 

Ohio: 

Cincinnati 

Cleveland 

Columbus 

Sandusky 

Toledo 

Oklahoma : 

Oklahoma 


Date  of 
Latest 
Recorded 
Killing 
Frost  in 
Spring 


May  19 
June  21 

May  18 

June  20 


Apr.  25 


Date  of 
Earliest 
Recorded 
Killing 
Frost  in 
Autumn 


Apr.  30 


Sept.  18 
Sept.  12 

Sept.  27 

Aug.  22 


Oct.  I 


May  30 

Sept.  23 

May  21 

Sept.  16 

May  29 

Sept.  23 

Apr.  30 

Oct.  5 

May  29 

Sept.  25 

May  30 

Sept.  26 

Apr.  26 

Oct.  8 

Apr.  19 

Nov.  7 

May  6 

Oct.  8 

May  I 

Oct.  16 

June  7 

Aug.  23 

June  10 

Aug.  18 

Apr.  24 

Sept.  30 

May  22 

Oct.  2 

May  17 

Sept.  21 

May  17 

Oct.  8 

May  29 

Sept.  9 

Average 

Date  of 

Last 

Killing 
Frost  in 

Spring 


Oct.  7 


Apr.  15 
May  9 

Apr.  15 

May  15 

Apr.  II 

Apr.  24 
Apr.  27 
Apr.  25 
Apr.  10 
Apr.  27 
May  I 

Apr.  I 
Feb.  28 
Apr.  5 
Mar.  27 

May  15 
May  18 

Apr.  14 
Apr.  16 
Apr.  16 
Apr.  14 
Apr.  24 

Apr.  2 


Average 
Date  of 

First 

Killing 

Frost  in 

Autumn 


Oct.  12 
Sept.  18 

Oct.  19 

Sept.  24 

Nov.  4 

Oct.  17 
Oct.  6 
Oct.  16 
Nov.  6 
Oct.  19 
Oct.  19 

Nov.  4 
Dec.  II 

Nov.  4 
Nov.  15 

Sept.  21 
Sept.  14 

Oct.  25 
Oct.  31 
Oct.  16 
Oct.  26 
Oct.  15 

Oct.  31 
12 


TABLE  H — (Continued) 


Station 


Oregon : 

Baker  City 

Portland 

Roseburg 

Pennsylvania : 

Erie 

Harrisburg 

Philadelphia.  . 

Pittsburg 

Rhode  Island: 

Block  Island . . 

Narragansett . . 
South  Carolina: 

Charleston 

Columbia 

South  Dakota: 

Huron 

Pierre 

Rapid  City.  .  . 
Tennessee : 

Chattanooga. . 

Memphis 

Nashville 

Knoxville 

Texas : 

Abilene 

Amarillo 

Corpus  Christi 

El  Paso 

Fort  Worth... 

Galveston 

Palestine 

San  Antonio . . 

13 


Date  of 
Latest 
Recorded 
Killing 
Frost  in 
Spring 


June  24 
May  9 
May  16 

May  17 
Apr.  26 
Apr.  29 
May  29 

May  II 
May  30 

Apr.  2 
Apr.  17 

June  8 
May  19 
May  21 

May  14 
Apr.  16 
May  14 
Apr.  24 

Apr.  16 
May  23 
Mar.  19 
Apr.  22 
May  I 
Mar.  I 
May  30 
Mar.  20 


Date  of 
Earliest 
Recorded 
Killing 
Frost  in 
Autumn 


Sept.  4 
Oct.  13 
Sept.  25 

Oct.  12 
Oct.  3 
Oct.  3 
Sept.  25 

Oct.  30 
Sept.  21 

Nov.  9 
Oct.  19 

Aug.  23 
Sept.  12 
Sept.  13 

Sept.  30 
Oct.  2 
Oct.  8 
Oct.  I 

Oct.  24 


Oct. 

Nov. 


16 
30 


Oct.  23 
Oct.  22 
Dec.  4 
Oct.  20 
Nov.  9 


Average 
Date  of 

Last 
Killing 
Frost  in 
Spring 


May  25 
Mar.  17 
Apr.  15 

Apr.  22 
Apr.  10 
Apr.  8 
Apr.  26 

Apr.  12 
Apr.  23 

Mar.  I 
Mar.  23 

May  13 
Apr.  30 
May  I 

Apr.  2 
Mar.  24 
Apr.  2 
Apr.  3 

Mar.  15 
Apr.  16 
Feb. 27 
Mar.  20 
Mar.  18 

Feb.  5 
Mar.  13 
Feb. 25 


Average 
Date  of 
First 
Killing 
Frost  in 
Autumn 


Sept.  27 
Nov.  16 
Oct.  30 

Oct.  29 
Oct.  24 
Oct.  30 
Oct.  19 

Nov.  16 
Oct.  16 

Nov.  30 
Nov.  8 

Sept.  20 
Sept.  30 
Sept.  20 

Oct.  26 
Oct.  28 
Oct.  24 
Oct.  27 

Nov.  15 
Nov.  I 
Dec.  25 
Nov.  10 
Nov.  19 
Dec.  25 
Nov.  13 
Nov.  30 


u 


APPLE  PESTS  AND  INJURIES 


§6 


TABLE  II— (Continued) 


Station 


Utah: 

Salt  Lake  City. 
Vermont : 

Northfield 

Virginia : 

Lynchburg .... 

Norfolk 

Wytheville 

Washington : 

Seattle 

Spokane 

Tatoosh  Island 

Walla  Walla.. 
West  Virginia : 

Elkins 

Parkersburg . . . 
Wisconsin : 

Green  Bay. . . . 

La  Crosse 

Madison 

Milwaukee 

Wyoming : 

Cheyenne 

Lander 


Date  of 

Latest 
Recorded 

Killing 
Frost  in 

Spring 


June  1 8 

June  7 

May  7 
Apr.  26 
May  26 

May  27 
June  8 
Apr.  19 
May  12 

May  24 
May  22 

May  30 
June  I 
May  13 
May  29 

June  1 1 
June  18 


Date  of 
Earliest 
Recorded 
Killing 
Frost  in 
Autumn 


Sept.  22 

Aug.  27 

Oct.  4 
Oct.  15 

Sept.  14 


Oct.  18 
Sept.  7 
Nov.  I 
Sept.  28 

Sept.  28 
Sept.  24 

Sept.  16 
Sept.  21 
Sept.  29 
Sept.  25 

Aug.  29 
Aug.  23 


Average 

Date  of 

Last 

Killing 
Frost  in 

Spring 


Apr.  23 

May  13 

Apr.  14 
Mar.  27 
Apr.  23 

Mar.  21 
Mar.  23 
Mar.  14 
Apr.  4 

May  18 
Apr.  II 

Mays 
May  2 
Apr.  21 
Apr.  29 

May  22 
May  19 


Average 
Date  of 

First 
Killing 
Frost  in 
Autumn 


Oct.  18 

Sept.  16 

Nov.  I 
Nov.  12 
Oct.  7 

Nov.  22 
Oct.  17 
Dec.  15 

Nov.  7 

Oct.  10 
Oct.  17 

Oct.  4 
Oct.  8 
Oct.  17 
Oct.  10 

Sept.  16 
Sept.  II 


if  the  air  is  dry,  and  this  evaporation  lowers  the  temperature 
of  the  plant.  If,  however,  the  air  is  saturated,  evaporation 
of  moisture  from  plants  cannot  take  place.  The  degree  of 
protection  will,  of  course,  depend  on  the  degree  of  saturation, 
or  of  humidity. 


§  6  APPLE  PESTS  AND  INJURIES  15 

12.  Means  of  Preventing  Frost  Injuries. — ^In  almost 
every  section  of  the  United  States  there  is  some  danger  of  loss 
in  the  business  of  fruit  growing  from  injuries  to  the  fruit  crop 
due  to  frosts.  In  fact,  the  killing  of  the  fruit  crop  by  frosts 
is  an  important  factor  in  determining  whether  or  not  fruit 
growing  in  any  locality  will  be  a  success.  The  preventing  of 
a  fruit  crop  from  being  killed  by  frost  not  only  saves  the  value 
of  the  crop  for  the  current  year,  but  makes  the  fruit-growing 
industry  in  the  community  more  stable  and  enables  the  business 
to  be  more  easily  carried  on  in  succeeding  years;  because  most, 
or  at  least  some,  fruit  growers,  desire  to  borrow  money  occasion- 
ally, and  loans  are  more  easily  secured  if  the  fruit  growing 
business  is  a  well-established  industry  in  the  community. 

13.  Mulching  with  such  crops  as  winter  vetch  or  rye 
grown  in  an  orchard  has  a  tendency  to  keep  the  soil  cool,  and  by 
so  doing  may  tend  to  retard  the  time  of  blooming.  This 
action,  however,  is  very  slight,  as  it  is  largely  the  temperature 
of  the  twigs  and  buds  and  not  that  of  the  soil  that  determines 
the  time  of  blooming. 

14.  Whitewashing  of  fruit  trees  may  have  the  effect 
of  slightly  retarding  their  blooming  period.  However,  the 
retardation  is  so  little  that  the  whitewashing  of  the  trees  for 
this  purpose  is  not  generally  considered  to  be  practical.  The 
principle  involved  in  the  use  of  whitewash  is  that  the  white 
surface  of  the  bark,  twigs,  and  buds,  after  they  are  whitewashed, 
will  not  absorb  the  rays  of  the  sun  and  consequently  will  not 
attain  a  temperature  as  high  as  the  surrounding  atmosphere. 

15.  Irrigation  is  used  as  a  means  of  preventing  frost 
injuries  in  irrigated  regions  when  the  temperature  gets  so  low 
that  frost  is  expected.  The  water  used  in  irrigating  gives  off 
heat  and  usually  prevents  severe  injury,  provided  the  temper- 
ature does  not  go  below  28°  F. 

16.  Spraying  of  fruit  plants  with  water  is  effective  in 
preventing  injury  from  frosts,  but  the  spray  must  be  applied 
as  long  as  the  low  temperature  continues.  If  the  spray  is 
stopped,  the  temperature  of  the  plants  is  quickly  reduced  and 


16  APPLE  PESTS  AND  INJURIES  §6 

wet  plants  will  not  stand  without  injury  as  low  a  temperature 
as  dry  plants. 

17.  Smudging,  which  is  the  burning  of  some  material 
that  will  make  a  cloud  of  dense,  moist  smoke,  is  a  means  of 
preventing  damage  by  frost.  This  is  an  old  practice  and  is 
effective  in  preventing  frost  injuries  where  the  conditions  in 
and  around  the  fruit  plantation  are  such  that  a  uniform,  dense 
smudge  can  be  retained  as  a  blanket  over  the  plantation  until 
aU  danger  of  frost  is  past.  The  fuel  used  should  be  of  a  kind 
that  biHTLS  slowly;  it  is  claimed  that  better  results  will  be 
obtained  if  damp  fuel  is  used  or  if  water  is  added  to  the  fire 
so  that  a  steam  or  vapor  is  formed  than  if  the  fire  is  allowed 
to  blaze.  Such  material  as  damp  leaves,  old  hay,  straw,  manure, 
sawdust,  brush,  grass,  in  fact,  any  slow-burning  material  may 
be  used  as  fuel  in  the  making  of  smudges.  A  mixture  of  1  part 
of  coal  tar  and  2  parts  of  sawdust  has  been  recommended  as 
a  very  desirable  smudge  fuel.  The  fuel  should  be  on  hand  in 
the  orchard  so  that  the  fires  may  be  lighted  as  soon  as  indications 
of  frost  appear. 

Smudging  is  more  often  effective  in  preventing  frost  if  the 
orchard  is  located  on  level  land  than  if  on  a  slope  or  on  rolling 
land,  because  in  the  latter  cases  there  are  more  likely  to  be 
air-currents,  which  prevent  the  smudge  from  settling  like  a 
blanket  over  the  orchard.  The  principle  involved  in  smudging 
is  that  the  cloud  of  smoke  and  vapor  acts  as  a  blanket  spread 
over  the  orchard  and  thus  prevents  the  heat  stored  in  the  soil 
and  in  the  trees  of  the  orchard  from  radiating. 

18.  Orchard  heating  is  warming  the  air  of  an  orchard  by 
means  of  fires  kept  burning  at  the  time  frost  is  likely  to  occur. 
Although  this  is  an  old  practice,  it  has  been  gaining  much  favor 
in  the  past  few  years,  and  is  now  considered  one  of  the  most 
practical  means  of  preventing  frosts  in  orchards. 

The  fuels  used  for  orchard  heating  in  the  United  States  are 
the  western  oils,  often  spoken  of  as  distillates,  crude  petroleum 
of  the  Mississippi  Valley  and  the  Eastern  States,  fuel  oil  obtained 
from  the  refining  of  petroleum,  and  coal,  wood,  straw,  manure, 
and  shavings;  oil  and  coal  are  the  important  fuels  used  for  the 


6 


APPLE  PESTS.  AND  INJURIES 


17 


purpose.  In  burning,  all  of  the  fuels  mentioned  produce  a 
dense,  heavy  smoke  and  in  some  sections  the  practice  of  orchard 
heating  is  known  as  smudging. 

If  coal  is  used  in  orchard  heating,  it  is  generally  necessary 
to  have  some  sort  of  kindling  to  start  the  coal  in  the  heaters, 
and  it  is  also  necessary  to  light  the  heaters  a  few  hours  before 
the  temperature  reaches  the  danger  point;  it  is,  however, 
impossible  to  know  whether  or  not  to  light  the  heaters  on 
some  occasions.  For  this  reason  some  grade  of  oil  is  most 
largely  used  for  orchard-heating  purposes,  although  coal  may 
be  used  with  success  in  regions  where  coal  is  relatively  cheap 
and  oil  is  relatively  expensive.  Wood  may  be  burned  in  small 
heaps  on  the  ground,  but  some  kind  of  burners  must  be  pro- 
vided if  oil  or  coal  is  used  as  a  fuel.     The  burners,  or  heaters, 


Fig.  5 

in  which  the  oil  is  burned  are  usually  some  form  of  galvanized- 
iron  or  of  ordinary  sheet -iron  pots  or  vessels  that  will  hold  from 
1  to  4  or  more  gallons  of  oil.  The  2-gallon  size  is,  probably, 
under  most  conditions,  the  most  desirable  size.  A  large  num- 
ber of  heaters  for  the  burning  of  oil  has  been  made  with  various 
shapes  and  devices  that  are  supposed  or  claimed  to  make  the 
heating  more  effective.  Several  oil-burning  heaters  are  shown 
in  Fig.  5,  and  a  coal-burning  heater  is  shown  in  Fig.  6. 

It  is  recommended  that  heaters  of  a  simple  form  of  construc- 
tion be  used;  that  they  be  supplied  with  a  lid  that  can  be 
easily  placed  on  the  heater  while  the  oil  is  burning  and  that 


18 


APPLE  PESTS  AND  INJURIES 


6 


Fig.  6 


cannot  be  blown  off  by  the  wind.  The  more  desirable  heaters 
are  supplied  with  some  appliance  for  reducing  the  burning 
surface,  especially  if  the  heater  has  a  capacity  of  2  or  more 

gallons  of  oil. 


19.  The  number  of 
heaters  required  to  pre- 
vent frost  injuries  to 
blossoms  or  very  young 
fruit  in  an  orchard  will 
vary  greatly,  depending 
on  the  location  of  the 
orchard,  the  temperature, 
and  the  wind.  If  the 
orchard  is  protected 
from  wind  and  has  fair 
air  drainage,  fifty  or  sixty 
heaters  to  the  acre  may  be  sufficient.  Experience  indicates, 
however,  that  there  should  be  in  any  orchard  at  least  one 
heater  for  each  tree  and  that  an  average  of  one  hundred  heaters 
to  the  acre  is  desirable.  Also,  the 
orchardist  should  have  a  torch  for  light- 
ing the  oil  in  the  heaters  and  a  small 
gasoline  can,  such  as  the  one  shown  in 
Fig.  7,  from  which  a  small  quantity  of 
gasoline  may  be  placed  on  the  oil  in  the 
heater  to  facilitate  lighting. 

To  be  prepared  to  combat  frost  suc- 
cessfully by  means  of  oil  heaters  the 
orchardist  must  provide  for  the  storage 
of  a  sufficient  quantity  of  oil  for  heating 
the  orchard  at  least  three  times.  The 
oil  should  be  on  hand  before  it  is  needed 
for  the  fighting  of  frosts.  Assuming 
that  1^  gallons  of  oil  is  burned  in  each 
heater  and  that  one  hundred  heaters  are  used  per  acre,  it  would 
require,  therefore,  150  gallons  of  oil  to  the  acre  for  each  heat- 
ing of  the  orchard.     Thus,  for  a  10-acre  orchard  it  would  be 


Fig.  7 


ilil 


Wii 
ilii' 


■ililfW"> 


19 


20  APPLE  PESTS  AND  INJURIES  §  6 

advisable  to  have  on  hand  4,500  gallons  of  oil;  this  should  be 
stored  in  a  large  cement  cistern  or  in  large  galvanized-iron  tanks. 
In  addition,  there  should  be  a  good  400-gallon  tank  that  could 
be  readily  mounted  on  a  wagon  and  used  for  distributing  the 
oil  in  the  orchard.  This  tank  should  be  equipped  with  one  or 
two  hose  and  nozzles,  such  as  the  outfit  shown  in  Fig.  8. 

20.  The  cost  of  the  equipment  necessary  for  fighting  frost  by 
means  of  heating  the  air  will,  of  course,  vary  with  the  cost  of  labor 
and  material.  Approximately,  the  cost  for  the  orchard-heating 
equipment  for  a  10-acre  orchard  may  be  siunmarized  as  follows : 

1,000  orchard  heaters $150  to  $400 

1  storage  tank  for  oil 75  to    175 

1  hauling  tank 40  to      75 

2  torches  and  gasoline  cans 2  to        3 

Total $267  to  $653 

The  cement  storage  tank  will  last  indefinitely,  but  the  other 
equipment  will,  in  time,  have  to  be  replaced.  Therefore,  in 
estimating  the  annual  cost  of  the  equipment  for  heating  a 
10-acre  orchard,  the  depreciation  of  equipment  should  be 
considered.  Assimiing  that  the  permanent  equipment  other 
than  the  cement  storage  tank  will  last  for  10  years,  the  annual 
cost  of  heating  a  10-acre  orchard  may  be  summarized  as  follows : 

Depreciation  of  equipment   $  19.20  to  $  47.80 

4,500  gallons  of  oil  (usually  less  oil  is  used) .  .      112.50  to    225.00 
2  men  placing  and  fill- 
ing heaters,  1  day  $3.00  to  $  4.00 

1  team  placing  and  fill- 

ing heaters,  1  day     1.50  to      2.00 

2  men    lighting     and 

tending  heaters    .  .     3.00  to      4.00 
Total  for  one  heating  $7.50  to  $10.00 

Labor  for  three  heatings 22.50  to      30.00 

Hauling  oil  from  railroad  station  to  farm ....        16.00  to      24.00 
Approximate    total    annual    cost    for 

10-acre  orchard  $170.20  to  $326.80 

Approximate  total  annual  cost  per  acre  $  17.00  to      32.70 


§  6  APPLE  PESTS  AND  INJURIES  21 

In  addition  to  the  equipment  mentioned,  a  few  good  tested 
thermometers  should  be  provided.  It  is  necessary  to  have 
them  tested,  because  thermometers  of  fair  grade  often  vary 
from  2  to  5  degrees;  such  thermometers  should  be  checked 
with  some  tested  thermometer  and  the  corrections,  if  any, 
made  for  each  one.  These  thermometers  may  then  be  placed 
at  various  places  throughout  the  orchard.  There  are  on  the 
market  thermometers  equipped  with  an  alarm  bell  that  rings 
when  the  temperature  drops  to  a  dangerous  degree.  These 
alarms  cannot  always  be  depended  on;  therefore,  too  much 
reliance  should  not  be  placed  in  them,  however  convenient 
they  may  be. 

21.  Heaters  may  be  placed  in  an  orchard  and  filled  any  time 
after  the  buds  have  begun  to  swell  and  are  in  danger  from 
injury  by  frost;  but  they  should  be  in  place  and  ready  for  use 
before  the  time  for  their  use  occurs.  They  should  be  placed 
under  the  trees  but  not  so  near  them  that  the  trunks  will  be 
injured  by  the  blaze  from  the  burning  oil.  If  coal  is  used  as  a 
fuel,  a  small  quantity  of  kindling  must  be  placed  under  the  coal. 
The  fires  are  lighted  by  means  of  a  torch  usually  made  of  a 
bunch  of  waste  fastened  to  the  end  of  a  wire  and  saturated  with 
oil.  This  torch  is  lighted  and  placed,  partly  submerged  in  the 
oil  heater,  and  immediately  under  the  kindling  in  the  coal 
heaters.  If  a  small  quantity  of  gasoline  is  poured  on  the 
surface  of  the  oil  from  a  small  can  firing  takes  place  very  quickly. 
The  use  of  the  gasoline,  however,  is  dangerous  unless  care  is  exer- 
cised in  using  it.  Its  use  should  not  be  entrusted  to  children 
or  to  persons -who  will  not  use  care  in  keeping  the  gasoline  can 
and  the  torch  separated  as  far  as  possible. 

If  a  dangerous  temperature  is  expected,  one  man  should 
remain  in  the  orchard  during  the  night  and  carefully  note  the 
temperature  as  indicated  by  the  thermometers.  If  a  frost  is 
imminent,  other  men  should  be  wakened  to  help  in  lighting 
the  heaters.  During  the  heating  the  attendants  should  care- 
fully watch  the  rise  or  fall  of  the  temperature  and  regulate  the 
fires  accordingly.  If  the  temperature  rises  beyond  the  danger 
point,  the  fires  shoiild  be  put  out  and  thus  save  fuel.     The 


:iiS'&^: 

^M-, 

W' 

—^^....^^  i 

m£  ■ 

"^ '« 

l^ft"":/' 

^ 

:  ;T*f  ■■ .        ■  ■                                "  ■ 

1- 

M- 

■.>-:^-i.:y-"-:  ■  - ; 

: 'J •;•"*■" '^  -  /.  « 

§  6  APPLE  PESTS  AND  INJURIES  23 

heaters  may,  if  necessary,  be  refilled  while  they  are  burning 
by  running  oil  into  them  through  a  hose  attached  to  a  tank, 
such  as  that  shown  in  Fig.  8.  An  orchard  in  which  the  fires 
are  burning  is  shown  in  Fig.  9. 

To  prolong  the  usefulness  of  orchard  heaters,  they  must  be 
well  cared  for  throughout  the  year.  Most  orchardists  collect 
the  heaters  after  all  danger  from  frosts  is  past  and  store  them 
in  a  shed  in  or  near  the  orchard.  Any  shed  or  building  that  will 
keep  out  the  rain  and  snow  will  answer  this  purpose.  Other 
orchardists,  after  they  have  finished  using  their  oil  heaters  for 
any  season,  fill  them  with  oil  and  place  them  near  the  trunks 
of  the  trees.  This  method  of  storing  saves  time  and  does  not 
necessitate  so  large  a  storage  tank  for  oil  as  where  the  heaters 
are  stored  in  a  shed,  and  if  the  heaters  are  of  galvanized  iron 
and  are  provided  with  neatly  fitting  lids  they  will  remain  in 
good  shape  for  several  years. 


INSECTS  AND  DISEASES  OF  THE  APPLE 


INSECTS  AFFECTING  THE  APPLE 

22.  It  is  estimated  that  over  $700,000,000  is  annually  lost 
from  the  work  of  insects  in  the  United  States.  Probably  no 
crop  suffers  greater  from  the  ravages  of  insects  than  does  the 
apple  crop.  It  is  estimated  that  in  New  York  State  alone 
an  annual  loss  from  the  codling  moth,  including  the  expense 
of  spraying,  is  at  least  $3,000,000.  Although  there  are  a  great 
number  of  insects  that  may  at  times  infest  apple  orchards, 
most  of  these  insects  are  controlled  by  spraying  the  trees  with 
an  insecticide.  It  is  important,  therefore,  that  a  fruit  grower 
become  acquainted  with  each  of  the  more  common  apple  insects 
and  the  means  of  combating  them. 

23.  Apple-Tree  Borers. — The  apple  tree  is  attacked  by 
three  species  of  borers,  the  round-headed  apple-tree  borer,  the 
spotted  apple-tree  borer,  and  the  fiat-headed  apple-tree  borer. 

248^19 


24 


APPLE  PESTS  AND  INJURIES 


§0 


Fig.  10 


The  adult  round -lieaded  apple-tree  borer,  shown  in 
Fig.  10  (a),  is  a  long-homed  beetle  with  two  white  stripes  down 
its  back  and  is  from  f  to  neariy  1  inch  in  length.  The  adults 
vary  a  month  or  so  in  the  time  they  emerge  from  the  pupal 

stage,  but  they  usually  come 
out  about  the  last  of  May. 
Due  to  the  fact  that  the 
adiilts  may  emerge  during 
a  period  of  from  1  to  2 
months,  the  eggs  are  de- 
posited during  a  period  ex- 
tending for  nearly  2  months 
from  about  the  last  of  May. 
The  eggs  are  pale  rusty 
brown  in  color,  |-  inch  long, 
about  one-third  as  wide  as 
long,  and  about  one- third 
as  thick  as  wide.  They  are  deposited  at  night,  usually  in  the  bark 
of  the  trunk  near  the  ground,  but  they  are  sometimes  deposited 
higher  up.  A  side  view  of  the  larva  is  shown  in  Fig.  10  (b) ,  and  a 
view  from  above  is  shown  in  (c).  During  the  first  year  after 
hatching  these  larvas,  or  borers,  burrow  into  the  sap  wood  and 
downwards.  The  second  year  a  borer  usually  works  more  or 
less  into  the  hard  wood  and  upwards;  the  third  year  it  gnaws 
out  to  the  bark,  where  a  cocoon  is  made  and  from  which  the 
adult  emerges.  It  is,  therefore,  3  years  from  the  time  an  egg 
is  deposited  until  the  insect  hatching  from  that  egg  develops 
and  emerges  as  an  adult.  A  single  borer  seldom  kills  a  tree, 
but  if  several  borers,  as  is  often  the  case,  are  in  one  young 
apple  tree,  it  is  very  likely  to  be  killed. 

Another  insect  that  closely  resembles  the 
round-headed  apple-tree  borer  is  the  spotted 
apple-tree  borer,  the  adult  of  which  is  illus- 
trated in  Fig.  11.  As  may  be  seen  by  comparing 
Fig.  10  (a)  with  Fig.  11,  the  chief  difference  in 
the  appearance  between  the  round-headed  and  ^'^-  ^^ 

the  spotted  apple-tree  borers  is  that  each  of  the  two  white  stripes 
on  the  back  of  the  former  insect  are  represented  by  three  white 


6 


APPLE  PESTS  AND  INJURIES 


25 


spots  on  the  latter  insect.  The  eggs  of  the  spotted  apple-tree 
borer  are  laid  in  pairs  about  ^  inch  apart  along  the  trunk  and 
large  branches  of  the  tree,  and  as  soon  as  these  eggs  hatch  the 
larvas,  which  in  appearance  can  scarcely  be  distinguished  from 
the  larvas  of  the  round-headed  apple-tree  borer,  work  in  oppo- 
site directions  around  the  branch.  Like  the  round-headed  apple- 
tree  borer,  the  spotted  apple-tree  borer  spends  the  first  year  in 
the  sap  wood,  the  second  year  in  the  hard  wood,  and  the  adult 
insect  emerges  the  third  year. 

The  adiilt  flat-headed  apple- 
tree  borer  is  illustrated  in 
Fig.  12  (a)  and  the  larva  in  (b). 
The  adrdts  are  about  |  inch  in 
length  and  appear  during  the 
spring,  at  about  the  time  the 
adtdts  of  the  round-headed  apple- 
tree  borer  appear,  and  deposit 
their  eggs  diuing  the  daytime  on 
the  bark  and  limbs  of  the  trees. 
The  larvas  of  the  fiat-headed  apple-tree  borer  usually  mine 
into  the  sap  wood  only.  They  hibernate  on  the  approach  of 
cold  weather  and  in  late  spring  form  pupas  within  the  infested 
trees.  The  adults  emerge  from  the  pupas  and  eat  their  way 
out.  The  work  of  the  flat-headed  apple-tree  borer  can  be  told 
from  that  of  the  round-headed  apple-tree  borers  by  the  shape 
of  the  holes  that  they  mine ;  the  hole  of  the  round-headed  apple- 
tree  borer  is  round  and  that  of  the  fiat-headed  apple-tree  borer 
is  oblate. 


Fig.  12 


24.  Although  apple-tree  borers  are  not  particularly  numer- 
ous, they  do  exist  in  considerable  numbers  in  some  sections. 
And  from  the  fact  that  they  cannot  be  killed  by  spraying,  their 
work  seriously  weakens  the  trees  of  apple  orchards,  and  if  they 
are  not  successfully  combated  they  will  eventually  destroy 
many  trees,  especially  young  trees. 

The  presence  of  the  insects  in  the  trees  may  be  detected  by 
the  injured  appearance  of  the  bark  near  the  ground.  If  the 
insects  are  in  the  tree,  there  may  be  present  at  the  surface 


26  APPLE  PESTS  AND  INJURIES  §  6 

of  the  bark  sawdust-like  cuttings  of  the  borers;  the  bark  may- 
present  a  dead,  shriveled  appearance;  jelly-like  secretions  may 
be  present  on  the  surface  of  the  bark;  or  it  may  present  a 
bruised  or  injured  appearance. 

Borers  are  combated  by  two  general  methods:  (1)  By  pre- 
venting them  from  getting  into  the  trees,  and  (2)  by  destroy- 
ing them  after  they  get  into  the  trees. 

The  preventive  method  consists  in  attempting  to  keep  the 
adult  insects  from  depositing  their  eggs  in  the  bark  of  the  trees. 
This  may  be  accomplished  by  placing  mechanical  barriers 
around  the  trees  or  by  washing  them  with  some  solution  that 
has  a  tendency  to  repel  the  insects.  One  of  the  most  common 
barriers  consists  of  from  two  to  four  thicknesses  of  newspaper 
loosely  wrapped  around  the  trunks  of  the  trees.  The  paper 
should  be  tied  in  place  by  a  cord,  or  string,  that  will  yield  or 
break  with  the  expansion  of  tree  as  it  grows.  A  small  mound 
of  earth  should  be  thrown  around  the  outside  of  the  paper  at 
the  bottom  of  the  trunk  of  the  tree  and  the  paper  at  the  top 
of  the  trunk  should  be  tied  rather  tightly  with  the  string  so  that 
the  beetle  cannot  get  down  behind  the  paper  and  obtain  access 
to  the  tree.  Wood  veneer  or  wire  netting  may  be  used  instead 
of  the  paper  to  place  around  the  trees.  That  part  of  the  trunk 
immediately  above  the  wrapping  and  the  lower  limbs  of  the 
tree  should  be  treated  with  some  deterrent.  A  wash  made  by 
reducing  soft  soap  or  fish-oil  or  whale-oil  soap  to  the  consistency 
of  thick  paint  by  the  addition  of  washing  soda  or  of  caustic 
soda  in  solution  has  been  recommended  as  a  successful  repel- 
lant  to  the  adult  insects  of  the  apple-tree  borers. 

Clean  cultivation  around  the  trees  is  one  of  the  best  means 
of  preventing  injury  from  borers.  Grass,  weeds,  or  water 
sprouts  should  not  be  allowed  to  grow  and  accumulate  around 
the  base  of  the  trees,  as  the  accumulation  of  such  material  forms 
a  suitable  place  for  the  insects  to  lay  their  eggs. 

If  a  tree  is  found  that  is  injured  beyond  recovery  it  should 
be  taken  out  and  destroyed  by  fire,  so  that  the  larvas  that  it 
may  contain  will  be  killed  before  they  have  an  opportunity  to 
develop  and  infest  other  trees.  The  insects  in  slightly  infested 
trees  may  be  cut  out  and  destroyed. 


6 


APPLE  PESTS  AND  INJURIES 


27 


25.  San  Jose  Scale. — The  one  insect  that  has  probably 
caused  more  damage  to  apple  orchards  than  any  other  insect 
is  the  San  Jose  scale.  The  insects  proper  are  very  small  and 
yellowish  in  color.  For  a  short  time  after  their  birth  the  young 
insects  may  be  seen  crawling  about.  They  have  six  legs;  and 
a  head  with  eyes,  antennae,  and  a  long,  thread-like  beak  through 
which  they  take  their  food.  But  in  from  12  to  36  hours  after 
their  birth  the  young  insects  attach  themselves  to  the  bark, 
fruit,  or  leaves  of  a  tree  and  secrete  from  their  bodies  waxy 
filaments.  This  waxy 
secretion  soon  forms  a 
scale  over  the  insect 
and  it  is  this  scale 
that  the  orchardist 
usually  sees  and  not 
the  insect  proper, 
which,  after  the  scale 
is  formed,  loses  its 
legs,  eyes,  and  anten- 
na, and  only  the 
thread-like  beak  and 
an  anal  plate  are  dis- 
tinct and  these  only 
under  a  high -power 
microscope.  In  fact, 
the  insects  become 
only  masses  of  organ- 
ized protoplasm  and 
present  but  little  resemblance  to  the  young  crawling  insects. 
The  insects,  when  they  attach  themselves  to  leaves,  fruit,  and 
smooth  young  bark,  cause  a  reddish  color  to  appear  around 
the  scales,  and  their  presence  is  usually  easily  recognized  by 
this  red-colored  tissue. 

The  immature  San  Jose  scales  are  most  easily  recognized 
by  orchardists,  because  the  immature  scales  are  circular,  almost 
black,  have  a  nipple-like  prominence  near  the  center  of  the 
scale,  and  the  nipple  is  surrounded  by  one,  two,  or  three 
depressed  circular  rings.     A  section  of  an  apple  limb  that  is 


Fig  13 


28  APPLE  PESTS  AND  INJURIES  §  6 

infested  with  San  Jose  scale  is  shown  magnified  several  times 
in  Fig.  13. 

The  reason  that  the  San  Jose  scale  is  so  damaging  in  an  orch- 
ard is  that  the  insects  are  very  small  and  to  unobserving  per- 
sons are  not  noticed  until  they  are  present  by  the  millions 
and  the  trees  have  begun  to  die  from  the  damage  done  by  the 
insects.  It  is  estimated  that  there  are  from  two  to  five  and 
possibly  more  generations  of  the  insects  each  year,  and  that  the 
progeny  of  a  single  female  insect  in  the  latitude  of  Washington, 
D.  C,  may  be  almost  three  and  one-quarter  billion  insects  in 
a  single  year.  It  is  easy  to  understand,  therefore,  why  it  is 
that  a  tree  with  only  a  few  San  Jose  scale  on  it  in  the  spring 
may  be  alraost  covered  with  them  by  fall. 

On  apple  trees,  San  Jose  scale  usually  infest  the  small  twigs; 
rarely  are  the  scales  found  on  the  thick,  rough  bark,  and  the 
leaves  and  fruit  are  infested  only  on  very  badly  infested  trees. 
The  old  scales  are  of  a  grayish  color  and  in  badly  infested  orch- 
ards the  scales  give  a  gray,  ashy  color  to  the  limbs  of  the  trees. 

San  Jose  scale  is  pretty  generally  distributed  over  the  United 
States,  and  those  sections  where  it  has  not  been  found  have  no 
assurance  of  immunity.  There  are  several  ways  of  distributing 
the  pest,  probably  the  most  common  of  which  is  by  means 
of  nursery  stock.  Young  trees  should  be  purchased  only  from 
a  nurseryman  that  can  show  a  certificate  of  inspection. 
Orchardists  should  learn  to  recognize  San  Jose  scale  and  to 
examine  carefully  each  tree  received  from  a  nursery.  During 
the  crawling  stage  of  the  life  of  the  insects,  that  is,  from  their 
birth  until  they  attach  themselves,  they  may  crawl  from  tree 
to  tree  where  the  branches  touch;  the  young  insects  may  crawl 
onto  the  feet  of  birds  and  be  carried  several  miles  and  crawl 
off  onto  another  tree;  the  young  insects  may  be  blown  from 
tree  to  tree  by  the  wind;  and  they  may  also  be  distrib- 
uted on  infested  fruit,  but  this  means  of  distribution  is  not 
considered  to  be  of  great  importance. 

26.  If  an  orchard  is  found  to  be  infested  by  San  Jose  scale, 
it  should  be  sprayed  thoroughly.  The  most  popular  spray  is 
lime-sulphur,    although    miscible    oils    are    used    extensively. 


§  6  APPLE  PESTS  AND  INJURIES  29 

The  miscible  oils  are  less  disagreeable  to  apply  than  lime-sul- 
phur but  there  is  a  slightly  greater  danger  of  injuring  the  twigs 
with  the  former  than  with  the  latter. 

Lime-sulphur  of  a  specific  gravity  of  about  1.03  should  be 
applied  in  the  fall  soon  after  the  leaves  have  fallen  or  in  the 
spring  before  the  buds  begin  to  swell  noticeably.  If  commer- 
cial brands  of  lime-sulphur  are  used,  it  is  usually  necessary 
to  dilute  1  gallon  of  the  concentrate  solution  with  9  gallons  of 
water  to  secure  a  solution  with  a  specific  gravity  of  1.03,  but 
to  insure  the  proper  specific  gravity  of  the  spray  mixture  a 
hydrometer  should  be  used. 

Although  the  spring  spraying  has  been  found  a  little  more 
effective  than  the  faU  spraying,  some  orchardists  recommend 
and  practice  fall  spra3dng.  The  reason  for  this  practice  is  that 
if  anything  should  prevent  the  completion  of  the  spraying 
during  the  fall  the  work  could  be  finished  in  the  spring,  whereas, 
if  something  should  prevent  spraying  the  entire  orchard  in 
the  spring,  the  spraying  with  a  strong  spray  solution  would 
have  to  go  undone.  However,  lime-sulphur  with  a  specific 
gravity  of  from  1.007  to  1.01  may  be  applied  to  the  trees  dur- 
ing the  summer  months  without  injury  to  the  foliage  and  may 
check  the  increase  of  San  Jose  scale. 

Miscible  oils  are  used  principally  as  winter  sprays  in  com- 
bating San  Jose  scale.  Commercial  brands  should  be  used 
as  directed  by  the  manufacturer,  but  if  home-made  miscible 
oil  is  used  it  should  be  diluted  from  ten  to  twelve  times,  that  is, 
from  9  to  11  gallons  of  water  should  be  added  to  each  gallon 
of  miscible  oil  to  make  from  10  to  12  gallons  of  the  emulsion, 
or  spray. 

27,  Oyster-Shell  Scale. — ^Perhaps  the  most  common 
scale  insect  that  is  found  in  apple  orchards  is  the  oyster-shell 
scale,  also  known  as  the  oyster-shell  bark  louse.  The  character- 
istic appearance  of  a  part  of  an  apple  limb  infested  by  this 
insect  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  14  (a),  and  a  single  female,  with  a 
section  of  the  scale  removed  to  show  the  eggs,  is  sho^vn  enlarged 
in  (b).  The  scales  that  cover  the  female  insects  are  dark 
brown  or  grayish  in  color,  about  |  inch  in  length,  and  shaped 


30 


APPLE  PESTS  AND  INJURIES 


6 


somewhat  like  an  oyster  shell.     The  scales  of  the  male  insect 
are  much  smaller  than  those  of  the  female. 

In  the  latter  part  of  August  the  female  insects  lay  from 
forty  to  one  hundred  small,  reddish  eggs;  these  remain  over 
winter  under  the  scale,  and  during  the  latter  part  of  May  hatch 
into  small  lice-like  insects,  which  crawl  out  from  under  the  scale 
and  move  slowly  over  the  bark  for  a  few  hours,  when  they 
attach  themselves  to  the  bark  and  remain  there  for  the  rest 
of  their  lives.  In  the  first  molting,  the  insects  lose  their  eyes, 
legs,  and  antennae,  and  immediately  begin  secreting  the  mate- 
rial of  which  the  scale  is  formed.     The  females  die  soon  after 


Fig.  15 


laying  their  eggs,  and,  as  there  is  only  one  brood  in  most  parts 
of  the  United  States,  the  oyster-shell  scale  does  not  multiply 
anything  like  so  rapidly  as  the  San  Jose  scale.  As  is  the  case 
with  the  San  Jose  scale,  the  oyster-shell  scale  insects  may  be 
carried  from  tree  to  tree  during  the  period  that  they  are 
crawling,  by  birds  or  by  the  wind. 

Although  the  oyster-shell  scale  is  very  widely  distributed 
throughout  the  United  States,  it  does  not  often  occur  in  suf- 
ficiently large  numbers  to  do  great  injury  to  orchards.  How- 
ever, if  orchards  are  neglected,  oyster-shell  scale  may  become 
somewhat  serious. 


§  6  APPLE  PESTS  AND  INJURIES  31 

The  same  methods  of  control  are  recommended  for  the 
oyster-shell  scale  as  for  the  San  Jose  scale,  and  if  spraying  is 
practiced  for  the  destruction  of  San  Jose  scale  little  need  be 
done  for  the  oyster-shell  scale. 

28.  Scurfy  Scale. — Scurfy  scale  are  illustrated  in  natural 
size  in  Fig.  15  (a).  The  larger  scales  are  the  females  and  the 
smaller  scales  are  the  males.  An  enlarged  female  scale  is  shown 
in  (6)  and  a  male  scale  in  (c) . 

Scurfy  scale,  although  very  common  in  apple  orchards,  is 
not  considered  a  serious  pest ;  in  fact,  it  has  never  been  reported 
to  have  caused  serious  damage  to  apple  trees.  The  life  history 
of  the  scurfy  scale  is  practically  the  same  as  that  of  the  oyster- 
shell  scale,  and  the  methods  of  control  are  also  the  same. 

29.  Codling  Motli. — The  insect  that  causes  wormy  apples 
is  known  as  the  codling  moth.  This  insect  exists  in  practically 
all  parts  of  the  world  in  which 
apples  are  grown.  The  mature 
codling  moth,  shown  in  Fig.  16, 
is  about  f  inch  across  the  ex- 
panded wings,  which  have  some- 
what the  appearance  of  grayish- 
brown  watered  silk,  and  emerges 
from  1  to  3  weeks  after  apples 

blossom.  Within  a  few  days  after  emerging  the  moths  begin 
to  deposit  their  eggs,  most  of  them  on  the  foliage  of  the  tree. 
In  from  5  to  10  days  after  being  laid  the  eggs  hatch  into  small 
whitish  worms,  or  larvas,  about  yg  i^ch  long.  If  the  eggs  are 
hatched  on  the  leaves,  the  larvas  usually  feed  a  little  on  the 
tender  leaves  and  then  crawl  to  the  nearest  apple.  Most  of 
the  larvas  enter  the  apples  through  the  calyx,  within  which 
they  feed  for  a  short  time  and  then  eat  their  way  into  the  core 
of  the  apple.  Here  the  larvas  usually  consume  a  portion  of  the 
flesh  of  the  apple  and  the  apple  seeds,  and,  becoming  fully  grown 
at  from  3  to  4  weeks  of  age,  eat  their  way  out  through  the 
sides  of  the  apples,  leaving  round  exit  holes.  Full-grown  larvas, 
which  are  about  f  inch  long  and  are  whitish  or  pinkish  in  color, 
find  a  convenient  place  to  spin  their  cocoons  in  which  they 


^J*^ 


■^. 


;|i 


% 


6 


APPLE  PESTS  AND  INJURIES 


33 


transform  into  pupas  and  usually  emerge  as  mature  moths  in 
about  8  weeks  from  the  time  the  eggs  were  laid.  The  charac- 
teristic appearance  of  the  interior  of  an  apple  injured  by  codling 
moth  larvas  is  shown  in  Fig.  17. 

Under  certain  conditions,  a  few  of  the  larvas  of  the  first 
brood  hibernate  during  the  winter,  but  in  most  parts  of  the 
United  States  only  the  larvas  of  the  second  brood  of  moths 
hibernate  over  winter.  A  rminber  of  cocoons  are  often  found 
on  the  under  side  of  a  piece  of  bark  as  it  is  pulled  from  an 
apple  tree.  The  larvas  of  the  second  brood  of  codling  moth 
usually  enter  the  apples  from  the  side  or  from  the  stem  end. 

30.  Codling  moths  are  combated  by  the  use  of  arsenical 
poisons  and  by  destroying  the  hibernating  larvas.  All  loose 
bark  on  the  trunk  of  apple  trees  in  an  infested  orchard  should 
be  removed  from  the  trees  and  burned  so  as  to  destroy  the 
larvas  that  may  be  attached  to  the  under  side  of  the  bark. 


ft')    X 


Fig.  18 


As  practically  all  the  larvas  of  the  first  brood  of  codling 
moths  enter  the  young  fruit  by  eating  through  the  blossom  end, 
or  calyx,  of  the  apple,  it  has  been  found  that  the  most  effective 
way  to  kill  the  young  larvas  is  to  place  poison  in  the  calyx  of 


34  APPLE  PESTS  AND  INJURIES  §  G 

the  youiig  apples.  As  the  calyx  of  the  apple  closes  about 
10  days  after  the  blossoms  faU,  it  is  necessary  to  make  the  first 
spraying  while  the  calyx  of  the  young  apple  is  open  as  shown 
in  Fig.  18  (a).  It  is  difficult,  though  possible,  to  force  a  spray 
into  a  calyx  in  the  condition  shown  in  (6),  but  it  is  too  late  to 
spray  effectively  for  codling  moth  when  the  calyx  has  closed 
to  the  extent  shown  in  (c).  Sometimes  the  trees  are  treated 
with  a  spray  in  from  3  to  4  weeks  after  the  blossoms  fall,  and 
with  a  third  spraying  in  from  8  or  9  weeks  after  the  blossoms 
faU  to  kill  the  larvas  of  the  second  brood.  Therefore,  to 
successfully  combat  codling  moths,  it  is  advisable  that  the 
orchardist  spray  the  trees  with  an  arsenical  poison  within  a 
week  or  10  days  after  the  blossoms  fall  and  again  in  from  2  to 
3  weeks  and  a  third  time  in  from  4  to  5  weeks  after  the  second 
spraying. 

The  poison  most  often  used  is  arsenate  of  lead.  About 
2  pounds  of  the  paste  form  or  1  pound  of  the  powder  form  are 
used  to  make  50  gallons  of  spray.  About  |  pound  of  Paris 
green  or  1  quart  of  stock  solution  of  arsenite  of  lime  may 
likewise  be  used  to  make  50  gallons  of  spray.  It  is  a  very  com- 
mon and  commendable  practice  to  use  50  gallons  of  lime- 
sulphur  solution  with  a  specific  gravity  of  from  1.007  to  1.01 
with  which  to  add  the  poisons  mentioned.  A  lime-sulphur 
solution  of  the  strength  mentioned  is  usually  obtained  by 
adding  from  Ij  to  I5  gallons  of  a  standard  concentrate  lime- 
srdphur  solution  to  50  gallons  of  water.  However,  if  the  codling 
moth  alone  is  to  be  combated,  the  arsenical  poisons  may  be 
added  to  water. 

31.  Lesser  Apple  Worm. — ^An  insect  that  closely  resem- 
bles the  codling  moth  is  the  lesser  apple  worm,  and  as  the  work 
of  the  two  insects  are  strikingly  similar,  the  same  m.ethods  are 
used  in  combating  them. 

32.  Apple  Maggot. — A  small,  yeUo wish-white,  footless 
maggot  about  ^  inch  long  when  full  grown  and  known  as  the 
apple  maggot,  or  the  apple  railroad  worm,  is  shown  in  Fig.  19  (a). 
The  adult  form  of  this  insect  is  a  blackish  colored  fly  shown 
in  (6).     It  is  a  little  smaller  than  the  common  house  fly  and 


APPLE  PESTS  AND  INJURIES 


35 


may  be  distinguished  from  other  flies  that  may  be  seen  on 
apples  by  the  four  rather  distinct  black  bands  across  each  wing 
and  by  the  three  or  four  white  bands  across  the  abdomen. 

This  insect  causes  much  damage  to  summer  and  faU  apples 
in  the  New  England  States  and  has  been  found  in  many  other 
sections  of  the  United  States.  The  female  fly  deposits  its  eggs 
just  beneath  the  skin  of  the  apples ;  sometimes  twelve  or  fifteen 
eggs  are  deposited  in  a  single  apple  and  from  300  to  400  eggs 
are  deposited  during  a  season.  The  young  larvas,  or  maggots, 
on  hatching,  immediately  begin  eating  into  the  apple.  They 
burrow  around  through  the  flesh  of  the  apple,  and  if  several 
of  them  are  present  in  the  same  apple  it  is  likely  to  be  eaten 


Fig.  19 


Fig.  20 


full  of  small  brownish  burrows  and  present  an  appearance  such 
as  is  shown  in  Fig.  20.  The  apple  maggots  reach  fiill  growth 
about  the  same  time  that  the  apple  in  which  they  are  living 
ripens.  Then  the  maggots  work  out  of  the  apple,  and,  if  in  the 
orchard,  work  about  1  inch  into  the  ground,  where  they  pupate. 
If  the  apples  are  stored  in  a  box  the  brownish  pupas  may  be 
■  found  in  the  bottom  of  the  box. 

As  the  apple  maggot  does  all  its  eating  entirely  within  an 
apple,  there  is  no  chance  for  the  orchardist  to  poison  this  pest. 
However,  a  large  part  of  the  infested  apples  drop  from  the 
trees,  and  if  these  apples  are  gathered  up  and  destroyed  twice 
a  week  the  damage  of  the  apple  maggot  will  not  be  great.     If 


3G 


APPLE  PESTS  AND  INJURIES 


6 


hogs  are  allowed  to  run  in  the  orchard  they  will  eat  the  fallen 
apples  and  thus  destro}^  the  maggots. 


Fig.  21 


33.  Plum  Curculio. — In  Fig.  21  is  shown  the  plum  cur- 
culio,  which  often  gnarls  and  disfigures  the  apple  by  depositing 
its  eggs  on  the  inside  and  by  eating  small 
portions  from  the  surface  of  the  apple.  The 
female  beetle  cuts  a  small  hole  in  an  apple  and 
then  deposits  her  egg,  after  which  she  cuts  a 
crescent-shaped  wound  around  the  puncture. 
The  characteristic  crescent-shaped  wound  of 
the  plrmi  curculio  is  illustrated  at  a  in  Fig.  22. 
The  scar  caused  by  the  beetle  eating  the 
apple  is  illustrated  at  b. 

The  insects  begin  depositing  eggs  in  the 
apples  when  they  are  not  over  j  inch  in  diameter  and  con- 
tinue until  August.  The  eggs  hatch  in  from  4  to  6  days  and 
the  young  larvas  immediately  burrow  in  the  fruit,  causing  it  to 
fall  within  a  few  days.  The  larvas  mature  in  about  3  weeks 
and  crawl  from  the  apple  and 
pupate  in  the  ground  or  under 
rubbish  and  emerge  in  about 
4  weeks  as  adult  insects. 
Many  of  these  insects  hiber- 
nate during  the  winter  and 
lay  eggs  the  following  year. 

In  young  orchards,  where 
the  trees  are  small,  the  in- 
sects may  be  jarred  from  the 
trees  during  the  latter  part  of 
May  and  during  June  onto 
a  sheet  spread  beneath  the 
tree.  This  practice  is  suc- 
cessful only  as  long  as  the  trees 
are  small  and  easily  jarred.  Frequent  sprayings  with  arsenical 
poisons  reduces  the  injury  but  Httle.  Probably  the  most  effective 
method  of  combating  the  plimi  curculio  is  to  keep  the  orchard  free 
from  weeds  and  to  cultivate  it  frequently  during  May  and  June. 


Fig.  22 


APPLE  PESTS  AND  INJURIES 


37 


Fig.  23 


34.  Apple  Curculio. — In  Fig.  23  (a)  is  shown  the  adult 
form  of  the  apple  curculio  and  in  (b)  the  larval  form.  This 
insect  is  about  J  inch  long  and  on  the  wing  covers  are  four 
prominent  humps.  These  insects  lay  their  eggs  in  the  apples 
for  about  2  months  after 
the  blossoms  fall.  A  scar 
on  the  fruit  similar  to  that 
shown  at  a  in  Fig.  24  is 
caused  by  the  insect  deposit- 
ing an  egg.  The  mature 
beetle  eats  sparingly  of  the 
apple  and  the  scar  caused 
*by  its  feeding  is  shown  at  b. 
The  eggs  hatch  within  a  week  after  being  laid  and  the  larvas 
develop  in  about  3  weeks  and  pupate  within  the  apple.  The 
mature  insects  emerge  in  about  1  week  after  the  larvas  pupate. 
These  insects  eat  very  sparingly  of  the  apples,  hibernate  during 

the  winter  among  rubbish, 
grass,  or  leaves,  and  deposit 
eggs  the  following  year. 

The  methods  of  controlling 
the  apple  curculio  are  the 
same  as  those  suggested  for 
the  plum  curculio.  However, 
the  apple  curculios  eat  so  little 
of  the  apples  that  the  spray- 
ing with  arsenical  poisons  is 
practically  useless. 


35.  Apple-Tree  Tent 
Caterpillar. — The  adult 
moth  of  the  apple-tree  tent 
caterpillar,  shown  in  Fig.  25 
(a)  is  of  a  reddish-brown  color,  and  has  two  nearly  parallel, 
oblique,  light-colored  bands  across  the  front  wings.  These 
moths  appear  from  May  until  July,  depending  on  the  latitude, 
and  in  from  5  to  6  weeks  after  apple  trees  blossom  they  deposit 
their  eggs  in  clusters  of  from  200  to  300  eggs  each.     The  eggs 


Fig.  24 


38 


APPLE  PESTS  AND  INJURIES 


8 


are  packed  closely  together  in  a  grayish-brown,  knot-like  band 
around,  or  nearly  around,  a  twig,  as  shown  in  (b).  Each  egg 
mass  is  covered  with  a  frothy,  glue-like  material  that  gives  a 


'yMi^«^*wSiiLiL^. 


glistening  surface  to  the  entire  mass.  These  eggs  remain 
throughout  the  summer  and  winter  and  hatch  the  next  spring 
just  about  the  time  the  leaf  buds  are  expanding.  The  young 
larvas  soon  begin  to  feed  on  the  opening  buds  and  leaves,  and, 


§  0  APPLE  PESTS  AND  INJURIES  39 

working  in  colonies,  they  pass  down  the  twigs  to  a  fork,  where 
they  spin  a  silken  web,  or  tent,  as  shown  in  (c) .  The  caterpillars 
live  in  their  silken  tent  during  the  night  and  stormy  weather, 
but  if  the  day  is  clear  they  crawl  out  to  eat.  The  tent  is 
enlarged  from  day  to  day  as  the  caterpillars  increase  in  size. 

A  tent  with  several  one-third  grown  caterpillars  is  shown 
in  (d).  A  full  grown  caterpillar,  as  shown  in  (e),  is  about 
2  inches  long  and  is  black  in  color ;  it  has  a  white  stripe  down  its 
back,  a  pale,  oval,  blue  spot  on  each  side  of  each  segment  of  the 
body,  and  is  sparsely  covered  with  yellowish  hairs. 

When  fiill  grown  the  caterpillar  seeks  some  sheltered  place, 
spins  around  itself  a  thin  cocoon  of  tough  white  silk,  transforms 
to  the  pupa,  and  in  about  3  weeks  emerges  as  a  mature  moth. 

The  apple-tree  tent  caterpillar  may  be  effectively  combated 
by  spraying  the  trees  just  before  they  blossom  with  a  spray 
containing  |  poimd  of  Paris  green  or  from  2  to  3  pounds  of 
arsenate  of  lead  in  each  50  gallons  of  spray  solution.  Or,  the 
insects  may  be  destroyed  by  applying  a  torch  to  their  nests 
during  a  cloudy  or  cold  day. 

36.  Fall  Web  Worm. — ^A  caterpillar  that  is  often  mistaken 
for  the  apple-tree  tent  caterpillar  is  the  fall  web  worm.  This 
caterpillar  is  so  named  because  it  spins  a  large  web  over  the 
twigs  and  foHage  on  which  it  feeds.  The  web  of  the  fall  web 
worm  is  distinguished  from  that  of  the  apple-tree  tent  cater- 
pillar in  that  the  web  of  the  latter  is  always  woven  aroimd  a 
fork  of  a  small  limb  and  does  not  include  foliage  in  its  meshes, 
and  the  web  of  the  former  is  always  spun  over  the  leaves  on 
which  the  caterpillars  live,  as  shown  in  Fig.  26  (a) .  The  mature 
moth,  shown  in  (6),  is  from  1  to  1|  inches  across  the  expanded 
wings,  is  white  or  white  with  a  ntimber  of  black  spots,  and 
emerges  late  in  June  or  in  July.  These  moths  lay  eggs  in 
clusters  of  from  400  to  500  eggs  each  on  the  leaves  of  the  trees. 
The  eggs  hatch  in  about  10  days,  and  the  young  caterpillars 
begin  spinning  a  web  over  the  foliage  on  which  they  feed.  The 
young  caterpillars  appear  to  be  nearly  all  head  and  hair,  but 
the  full  grown  caterpillars,  two  of  which  are  shown  in  (c),  are 
about  1  inch  long,  somewhat  woolly,  and  are  thickly  covered 

248—20 


40 


APPLE  PESTS  AND  INJURIES 


6 


with  long  hairs,  some  black  and  some  white,  that  project  from 
numerous  black  or  black  and  yellowish  tubercles.  In  color, 
the  caterpillars  vary  from  light  yellow  to  almost  black.  They 
become  full  grown  in  from  4  to  6  weeks  and  seek  a  secluded 
spot,  where  they  spin  a  cocoon  in  which  they  spend  the  winter 
in  the  pupal  stage  and  emerge  as  mature  moths  in  June  or  Jtdy. 
In  some  parts  of  the  United  States  there  seems  to  be  two  broods 


Fig.  26 

of  the  fall  web  worm.  The  first  brood  of  moths  appears  in 
April  and  May,  and  the  second  brood  in  August  and  September. 
Spraying  with  any  of  the  sprays  recommended  for  the  codling 
moth  when  the  young  caterpillars  first  appear  will  prevent  the 
fall  web  worm  from  doing  much  damage.  In  fact,  if  sprays 
have  been  applied  in  combating  the  codling  moth,  but  little 
trouble  will  develop  from  the  fall  web  worm. 

37.  Canker  Worms. — One  of  the  most  important  of  the 
leaf-eating  caterpillars  that  attack  apple  trees  is  the  canker 
worm.     There  are  two  species  of  this  worm,  the  spring  canker 


6 


APPLE  PESTS  AND  INJURIES 


41 


worm  and  the  fall  caiiker  worm.     The  female  of  both  species 
is  wingless,  as  shown  in  Fig.  27  (a). 

The  moths  of  the  spring  species  emerge  from  the  ground  and 
crawl  up  the  trunks  of  the  trees.  This  occurs  from  January 
until  May,  but  usually  during  March  and  April.  Here  they 
lay  their  eggs  in  irregular  masses.  The  eggs,  in  about  1  month, 
hatch  into  caterpillars  that  are  cominonl}^  known  as  measuring 
worms  or  as  loopers.  The  young  caterpillars  at  first  eat  holes 
through  the  leaves,  but  the  full-grown  caterpillars,  one  of  which 
is  shown  in  (6),  devour  the  entire  leaves.  The  caterpillars  have, 
in  addition  to  three  pairs  of  true  legs,  one  pair  of  prolegs,  or 
leg-like  appendages,  near  the  rear  of  the  body  with  which  they 
hold  to  a  twig.     The  caterpillars,  especially  the  young  ones, 


Fig.  27 

have  the  habit  of  suspending  themselves  on  fine  threads  of 
silk  from  trees.  The  caterpillars  become  full  grown  in  4  or 
5  weeks  and  enter  the  soil,  where  they  pupate  and  remain  until 
they  emerge  the  following  spring  as  mature  moths. 

The  faU  canker  worms  differ  from  the  spring  species  in  that 
the  mature  moths  emerge  from  September  to  December  and  lay 
their  eggs,  which  do  not  hatch  until  the  following  spring;  that 
the  eggs  are  laid  in  clusters  of  about  one  himdred  each  and  are 
deposited  in  straight  rows;  and  that  the  caterpillars  have  two 
pairs  of  prolegs. 

Orchards  that  are  cultivated  annually  or  that  are  sprayed 
annually  for  codling  moth  are  seldom  troubled  with  canker 
worms.  Wherever  canker  worms  are  troublesome,  however, 
they  should  be  combated  by  preventing  the  female  moths  from 
climbing  up  the  trees  to  deposit  their  eggs,  or  the  caterpillars. 


42 


APPLE  PESTS  AND  INJURIES 


() 


while  they  are  feeding  on  the  leaves,  may  be  poisoned  by  spray- 
ing with  any  of  the  arsenical  sprays  that  have  previously  been 
recommended  for  combating  the  codling  moth.  The  female 
moths  may  be  trapped  as  they  crawl  up  the  trunks  of  the 
trees  by  placing  a  band  of  some  sticky  substance,  such  as 
tanglefoot  fly  paper,  around  the  trees. 

38.     Yellow-Necked   Apple    Caterpillar. — During   late 
simimer  the  tips  of  apple-tree  limbs  are  sometimes  defoliated  by 


Fig.  28 


a  cluster  of  yellow-necked  apple  caterpillars,  such  as  shown  in 
Fig.  28  (a).  That  part  of  the  caterpillar  immediately  back  of 
the  jet-black  head  and  commonly  spoken  of  as  the  neck  is  of  a 


§  6  APPLE  PESTS  AND  INJURIES  43 

bright  orange-yellow  color;  it  is  from  this  yellowish-colored 
band  that  the  insect,  gets  its  name. 

If  one  of  these  caterpillars  is  touched  or  if  the  limb  to  which 
it  clings  is  jarred  the  insect  raises  its  head  and  tail  in  the  air 
and  holds  on  to  the  limb  by  means  of  its  abdominal  prolegs. 
The  characteristic  position  assumed  is  shown  in  Fig.  28  (b) . 

If  the  colonies  of  these  caterpillars  are  abundant  it  is  best  to 
spray  the  trees  with  an  arsenical  poison,  say  3  pounds  of  arse- 
nate of  lead  to  50  gallons  of  water.  If  only  a  few  colonies  are  to  be 
destroyed,  this  can  best  be  accomplished  by  swabbing  the  cater- 
pillars off  the  limb  with  a  rag  or  a  handful  of  waste  saturated 
with  kerosene,  or  the  tip  of  the  limb  on  which  the  insects  are 
clustered  may  be  cut  off  and  the  caterpillars  crushed  or  burned. 

39.  Red-Humped  Apple  Caterpillar. — ^A  species  of 
caterpillar  whose  habits  are  very  similar  to  the  yellow-necked 
apple  caterpillar  is 
shown  in  Fig.  29 
and  is  known  as  the 
red-htmiped  apple 
caterpillar.  The 
caterpillar  received 
its  name  on  account  ^     „„ 

Fig.  29 

of  the    red    hump 

made  by  the  fourth  segment  of  its  body.  This  hump  and  the 
head  of  the  insect  are  of  a  bright  coral  red  and  makes  its 
identification  comparatively  easy. 

The  same  measures  are  recommended  in  combating  the  red- 
humped  apple  caterpillar  as  for  the  yellow-necked  apple  cater- 
pillar. 

40.  Brown-Tailed  Moth. — In  some  of  the  New  England 
States  the  brown-tailed  moth  is  very  destructive  to  apple 
orchards.  The  moth,  which  emerges  during  midsummer,  is 
white  except  at  the  tip  of  the  abdomen,  which  is  in  the  form 
of  a  tuft,  or  bru-sh,  and  has  a  golden-brown  color.  Egg  masses 
consisting  of  from  300  to  400  eggs  are  deposited  late  in  Jrdy, 
usually  on  the  terminal  leaves  of  the  branches,  and  are  covered 
with  fine,  brown  hairs  from  the  tip  of  the  abdomen  of  the  female 


u 


APPLE  PESTS  AND  INJURIES 


6 


moth.  The  eggs  hatch  in  about  3  weeks  from  the  time  they 
were  laid  and  the  young  larvas  feed  on  the  surfaces  of  the  leaves, 
but  do  not  eat  the  web -like  framework  of  the  leaves.  The  young 
cateipillars  soon  begin  to  bind  adjoining  leaves  together,  and  by 
fall  have  several  leaves  completely  siuroimded  by  a  tough  web 
and  firmly  fastened  to  a  twig.  This  leaf  nest,  if  viewed  from 
a  little  distance,  presents  the  appearance  of  a  couple  of  dead 
leaves.  The  interior  of  the  nest  consists  of  from  forty  to  sixty 
small  pellets  of  silk,  in  each  of  which  are  wrapped  from  three 
to  twelve  young  caterpillars.  The  caterpillars  come  out  of  their 
winter  nest  at  the  time  the  buds  open  in  the  spring  and  feed 


Fig.  30 

on  the  unfolding  foliage.  The  caterpillars  mature  in  from  5  to 
6  weeks  and  pupate  in  white  silk  cocoons  spim  among  the  leaves 
of  the  tree,  and  emerge  as  mature  moths  in  about  3  weeks. 

Control  of  the  brown-tailed  moth  consists  in  pruning  off  and 
burning  all  winter  nests  and  in  spraying  with  about  4  pounds 
of  arsenate  of  lead  in  50  gallons  of  water  about  the  time  the 
eggs  hatch. 

41.  Gipsy  Moth. — In  the  United  States  the  gipsy  moth  is, 
so  far  as  known,  confined  to  the  New  England  "States,  but  it  is 
a  serious  pest  and  there  is  danger  of  its  spread  into  other  states. 

The  male  moth,  shown  in  Fig.  30  (a),  is  of  a  brownish-yellow 
to   greenish-brown   color;   it   is   about    1|  inches   across   the 


6 


APPLE  PESTS  AND  INJURIES 


45 


spreaded  wings,  and  flies  during  the  day  with  a  peculiar  zigzag 
flight.  The  female  moth,  shown  in  (b),  is  neariy  white  with 
numerous  black  spots;  she  has  a  wing  expanse  of  about  2  inches, 
but  fortunately  is  unable  to  use  her  wings  for  flight;  and,  in  a 
few  days  after  emerging  lays,  on  the  bark  of  the  trees,  from 
400  to  500  eggs  in  a  mass  covered  with  yellowish  hairs  from 
her  body.  In  the  following  spring,  about  the  first  of  May,  the 
eggs  hatch,  and  the  caterpillars  live  on  the  foliage  of  the  trees 
until  about  midsummer,  when  they  pupate.  The  pupal  stage 
lasts  only  about  10  days.     The  mature  caterpillar,  shown  in 


(c) 


Fig.  31 


(c),  is  of  a  dusty,  sooty  color,  and  has  a  pair  of  blue  spots  on 
each  of  the  first  five  segments  of  its  body  and  a  pair  of  red 
spots  on  each  of  the  next  six  segments.  The  caterpillars  are 
readily  distinguished  by  means  of  these  blue  and  red  spots. 
To  control  the  gipsy  moth  in  the  apple  orchard,  the  egg 
masses  should  be  painted  in  winter  with  creosote  and  the  trees 
sprayed  in  the  spring  when  the  eggs  are  hatching  with  5  pounds 
of  arsenate  of  lead  in  50  gallons  of  spray  solution. 

42.  Tussock  Moths. — The  tussock  moths  are  common 
pests  of  shade  trees,  and  where  they  are  abundant  the  cater- 
pillars prove  to  be  destructive  of  foliage  on  apple  trees.     In 


46 


APPLE  PESTS  AND  INJURIES 


6 


Fig.  31  (a)  is  illustrated  the  mature  caterpillar  of  the  willow 
tussock  moth ;  in  (b)  is  shown  the  caterpillar  of  the  rusty  tussock 
moth,  the  most  common  and  injurious  of  the  tussock  moths; 
and  in  (c)  is  shown  the  caterpillar  of  the  white-marked  tussock 
moth. 

Tussock  moths  emerge  from  the  middle  to  the  last  of  June. 
The  females  are  wingless  and  bear  no  resemblance  to  the  winged 
male  moths;  in  fact,  the  females  look  more  like  fat  spiders  than 
moths  and  usually  lay  their  eggs  on  the  cocoons  from  which 
they  emerge.  These  eggs  hatch  early  in  July  and  the  cater- 
pillars mature  during  the  late  summer  and  pupate  and  emerge 
as  mature  moths  during  the  fall.  The  female  moths  of  this 
second  brood  lay  eggs  that  remain  over  winter  and  hatch  about 
the  first  of  May,  thus  making  two  complete  broods  each  year. 

The  destruction  of  egg  masses  during  the  winter  months 


Fig.  32 

and   spraying  as  for  the  codling  moth  or  for  the  gipsy  moth 
will  prevent  serious  damage  from  tussock  moths. 

43.  Climbing  Cutworms.- — A  dozen  or  more  species 
of  cutworms  make  a  practice  of  climbing  apple  trees  and  other 
fruit  plants  at  night,  feeding  on  the  opening  buds  and  young 
tender  foliage,  and  then  returning  to  the  soil,  where  they  remain 
in  hiding  during  the  day.  Because  these  insects  work  during 
the  night  only,  the  first  knowledge  that  an  orchardist  may 
receive  of  their  presence  is  that  certain  young  trees  fail  to  put 
forth  leaves  or  that  young  foliage  from  a  whole  branch  or  of 
an  entire  tree  suddenly  disappears.  Three  of  these  cutworms 
are  shown  in  Fig.  32.  When  the  presence  of  cutworms  is  sus- 
pected the  orchardist  should  visit  the  trees  at  night  with  a  dim 


§'6  APPLE  PESTS  AND  INJURIES  47 

light  and  he  may  be  able  to  see  the  pests  at  work.  The  climb- 
ing cutworms  are  usually  most  numerous  when  the  orchard  is 
in  sod  or  when  the  sod  has  been  plowed  under  just  before  the 
planting  of  the  trees. 

To  prevent  attacks  from  cutworms,  the  soil  in  which  the 
young  trees  are  to  be  planted  should  be  plowed  late  in  the  fall 
the  year  before  the  young  trees  are  planted.  When  the  pests 
are  very  numerous  they  may  be  poisoned  by  spraying  the  trees 
with  almost  any  of  the  arsenical  sprays  that  have  been  recom- 
mended for  combating  other  caterpillars. 

44.  Bud  Moth. — As  the  buds  of  apple  trees  begin  to  swell 
and  to  open  they  are  sometimes  attacked  by  small,  dirty  white 


Fig.  33 

caterpillars  from  i  to  |  inch  in  length.  These  young  cater- 
pillars make  a  nest  for  themselves  by  spinning  a  fine  web 
around  the  unfolding  leaves,  causing  them  to  assume  a 
crumpled  condition,  as  shown  in  Fig.  33.  The  caterpillars 
attain  full  size,  which  is  about  |  inch  long,  during  the  early 
part  of  summer,  when  they  pupate  in  small,  silk-lined  nests, 
from  which  the  moths  emerge  in  about  10  days.     The  moths 


48 


APPLE  PESTS  AND  INJURIES 


6 


soon  lay  their  eggs,  which  hatch  in  a  few  days  and  the  young 
caterpillars  feed  on  the  under  side  of  leaves  until  fall,  when  they 
spin  on  the  twigs  small  silken  cases  in  which  they  spend  the 
winter;  they  finish  their  growth  in  the  following  spring. 

A  solution  of  5  pounds  of  arsenate  of  lead  and  50  gallons  of 
water  sprayed  on  the  trees  just  as  the  buds  are  bursting  and 
again  just  before  the  trees  blossom  will  destroy  the  caterpillars 
of  the  bud  moth. 

45.  Pistol  Case  Bearer. — An  interesting  little  cater- 
pillar that,  in  some  sections,  is  a  destructive  pest  in  apple 
orchards,  is  shown  enlarged  several  times  in  Fig.  34  (a) ;  in  (&) 


are  shown  several  of  the  peculiar  pistol-shaped  cases  in  which 
the  caterpillars  live  and  in  which  they  move  from  place  to  place 
on  the  twigs  and  leaves.  The  partly  grown  caterpillars  are 
about  I  of  an  inch  long;  they  hibernate  during  the  winter  and 
early  in  the  spring  feed  on  the  unopened  buds  and  young  leaves, 
but  later  devour  the  entire  leaves  except  the  large  veins  and 
the  midribs.  The  caterpillars  become  full  grown,  or  about 
I  inch  long,  during  early  simimer,  when  they  attach  their  silken 
cases  to  twigs  and  pupate.     In  about  10  days  the  moths  emerge 


6 


APPLE  PESTS  AND  INJURIES 


49 


and  lay  their  eggs  on  the  under  surfaces  of  the  leaves.  The 
eggs  hatch  within  a  few  days  and  the  very  young  caterpillars 
at  first  eat  the  tissue  between  the  surfaces  of  the  leaves. 

The  pistol  case  bearer  can  be  effectively  controlled  by  spray- 
ing with  an  arsenical  poison  just  before  the  buds  open  and 
again  as  soon  as  the  leaves  are  out. 

46.  Cigar  Case  Bearer. — In  Fig.  35  (a)  is  shown  the 
caterpillar  of  the  cigar  case  bearer,  an  insect  whose  habits  and 


life  history  are  practically  the  same  as  those  of  the  pistol  case 
bearer.  The  cigar  case  bearer  has  received  its  name  on  account 
of  the  resemblance  of  its  covering  case  to  that  of  a  very  small 
cigar.  In  (b)  is  shown  the  effects  of  the  cigar  case  bearers 
and  also  several  of  the  cases  on  the  partly  eaten  leaves.  Cigar 
case  bearers  are  controlled  by  the  same  methods  as  the  pistol 
case  bearer. 


50 


APPLE  PESTS  AND  INJURIES 


§6 


47.  Fruit-Tree  Leaf  Roller. — ^An  insect  that  sometimes 
causes  a  very  great  loss  to  the  apple  crop  in  some  parts  of  the 
United  States  is  the  fruit-tree  leaf  roller.  The  moths  emerge, 
usually  during  June,  and  lay  their  eggs  in  a  mass  on  a  twig  or 
small  limb  and  completely  cover  the  eggs  with  a  gimimy-like, 
brown  substance  that  protects  them  from  the  weather.  These 
egg  masses  remain  on  the  trees  until  the  latter  part  of  the  fol- 
lowing spring,  when  they  hatch.  An  egg  mass  in  which  a  part 
of  the  eggs  have  hatched  and  the  young  caterpillars  have  eaten 
out  through  the  gummy  covering  is  shown  in  Fig.  36  (a).     The 


Fig.  36 

caterpillars,  one  of  which  is  shown  in  (b),  are  of  a  light  straw 
color,  with  the  head  and  first  segment  of  the  body  sometimes 
almost  black.  The  young  caterpillars  spin  a  few  fine  silk  threads 
around  a  few  leaves,  drawing  them  into  more  or  less  of  a  loose 
cluster  inside  of  which  the  young  pests  feed.  As  soon  as  the 
fruit  has  set,  a  caterpillar  draws  a  few  leaves  around  an  apple 
and  then  feeds  on  the  apple.  It  is  by  eating  the  young  apples 
that  the  caterpillars  cause  the  greatest  loss. 

The  fruit-tree  leaf  roller  can  be  successfully  combated  by 
spraying  the  trees  with  a  solution  made  by  adding  4  pounds  of 
arsenate  of  lead  to  50  gallons  of  water. 


G 


APPLE  PESTS  AND  INJURIES 


51 


48.  Apple  Leaf  Miner. — ^A  very  small  caterpillar,  known 
as  the  apple  leaf  miner,  has  occasionally  caused  considerable 
damage  to  apple  orchards  in  certain  parts  of  the  United  States. 
A  small  moth  about  ^  inch  across  its  expanded  wings  deposits 
its  eggs  on  the  under  side  of  apple  leaves  during  April  and  May. 
The  eggs  hatch  in  about  10  days  and  the  young  caterpillars  eat 
their  way  from  the  eggs  directly  into  the  leaves,  where  they  live 
by  eating  small  trumpet-shaped  mines  between  the  upper  and 
lower  surfaces  of  the  leaves.  An 
apple  leaf,  showing  the  character- 
istic mines  of  the  apple  leaf  miner, 
is  illustrated  in  Fig.  37.  The 
caterpillars  become  full  grown,  or 
about  I  inch  long,  in  about  3  weeks, 
when  they  pupate  within  the  leaf. 
There  are  usually  two  and  some- 
times iour  or  five  generations  a 
year. 

The  caterpillars  of  the  last  brood 
pass  the  winter  in  the  leaves,  and 
because  of  this  fact  the  most 
effective  way  to  destroy  the  apple 
leaf  miners  is  to  collect  and  burn 
all  apple  leaves  in  the  fall  or  to 
plow  them  under. 

49.  Apple-Tree  Buccula- 
trix. — The  larva,  or  caterpillar, 
of  the  tiny  moth  known  as  the 
apple-tree  bucculatrix  sometimes 
does  considerable  damage  to  apple  trees  by  mining,  or  eating, 
practically  all  the  tissue  of  the  leaves  except  the  upper  sur- 
face. The  caterpillars  are  scarcely  ever  more  than  I  inch  long, 
but  when  they  occtu  in  large  numbers  the  white  cocoons,  which 
are  about  |  inch  long  and  in  which  the  caterpillars  pupate, 
almost  cover  the  twigs.  There  are  usually  two  broods  a  year; 
the  caterpillars  of  the  second  brood  remain  on  the  tree  all 
winter  in  the  little  white  cocoons.   ■ 


Fig.  37 


52  APPLE  PESTS  AND  INJURIES  §  6 

Spraying  the  trees  during  the  winter  with  a  lime-sulphur 
solution  of  a  specific  gravity  of  1.03  will  kill  the  hibernating 
pupas,  and  the  arsenate-of-lead  spray  recommended  for  the 
codling  moth  will  kill  the  caterpillars  as  they  are  eating  the 
leaves. 

50.  Palmer  Worm. — An  insect  that  makes  very  irregular 
appearances  in  apple  orchards  is  the  palmer  worm.  These 
so-called  worms,  which,  when  full  grown  are  about  |  inch  long, 
are  the  caterpillars  of  smaU  ashen  colored  moths.  The  cater- 
pillars vary  in  color  from  flesh  to  yellow,  are  tinted  with  green, 
and  are  sparsely  covered  with  fine  hairs.  They  appear  in  large 
numbers  and  at  long  intervals;  sometimes  as  many  as  50  years 
elapse  between  their  appearances.  They  eat  all  the  soft  tissue 
of  the  leaves. 

When  use  is  made  of  an  arsenical  spray  as  in  combating  the 
codling  moth,  little  damage  to  an  apple  orchard  will  follow  the 
appearance  of  the  palmer  worms. 

51.  Brown  Mite. — The  presence  of  brown  mites,  also 
known  as  clover  mites,  in  an  apple  orchard  is  indicated  by  a 
sickly,  faded  appearance  of  the  leaves.  Although  the  mites 
feed  on  the  leaves,  they  deposit  their  egg's  on  the  twigs  and 
limbs,  and  if  the  mites  are  particularly  abundant  their  eggs 
often  cause  the  twigs  to  present  a  red  color,  especially  during 
the  winter. 

Probably  the  best  method  of  combating  brown  mites  is  to 
spray  the  trees  during  winter  with  lime-sulphur,  of  a  specific 
gravity  of  1.03,  which  will  destroy  the  mite  eggs. 

52.  Woolly  Apple  Aplils. — A  very  serious  insect  to  young 
apple  trees  and  apple  trees  in  an  unthrifty  condition  is  a  small 
plant  louse  known  as  the  woolly  apple  aphis.  The  name  woolly 
aphis  was,  no  doubt,  given  to  this  insect  from  the  fact  that  a 
bluish-white,  cottony,  waxy  mass  is  secreted  in  threads  from 
the  abdomen  of  the  insect.  This  cottony,  or  wool-like,  secretion 
gives  a  colony  of  the  insects  a  bluish-white,  or  mold-like,  appear- 
ance. The  life  history  of  this  insect  is  peculiar  in  many  respects, 
and  an  understanding  of  its  life  enables  orchardists  better  to 
combat   the   insect.     The   colonies   are   largely   composed   of 


6 


APPLE  PESTS  AND  INJURIES 


53 


mature,  wingless  females,  one  of  which  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  38  (a) . 
This  form  of  the  insect  appears  throughout  the  summer  months 
and  produces  from  two  to  twenty  young  wingless  females  each 
day;  these  mature  in  from  8  to  20  days  and  begin  giving  birth 
to  young.  In  the  fall,  the  wingless  females  produce  a  brood 
of  winged  females,  one  of  which  is  shown  in  (6) .     These  winged 


females  migrate  to  other  trees  and  give  birth  to  from  four  to 
six  wingless  males  and  females.  The  sexual  male  insect  is 
shown  in  (c)  and  the  sexual  female  insect  in  (d). 

The  mouth  parts  of  the  sexual  forms  are  very  poorly  devel- 
oped, and  neither  the  male  nor  the  female  takes  any  food. 
They  mate,  however,  and  the  female  lays  a  single  large  black 
egg,  which  is  usually  deposited  under  a  loose  piece  of  bark 
somewhere  on  the  lower  part  of  the  trunk  of  the  tree.  The 
female  with  the  large  egg  extruded,  but  still  attached  to  her 
body  is  shown  greatly  enlarged  in  (e) .     This  egg  hatches  in  the 


54 


APPLE  PESTS  AND  INJURIES 


early  spring  into  a  wingless  female  like  that  shown  in  (a),  thus 
completing  the  life  cycle  of  the  insect. 

The  woolly  apple  aphis  lives  both  on  the  limbs  and  on  the 
roots  of  apple  trees.  It  is  most  often  found  on  young  green 
twigs  of  the  trees  such  as  water  sprouts  and  on  the  leaves  and 
in  wounds.  A  colony  of  these  insects  is  shown  in  Fig.  39  (a) 
on  a  twig  and  in  a  wound  in  the  bark  of  a  small  apple  tree. 
Whenever  these  insects  are  found  on  the  trunk  and  limbs  of 
a  tree,  they  are  almost  sure  to  be  on  the  roots  also,  and  it  is 


Fig.  39 


on  the  roots  that  the  most  damage  is  done.  Roots  of  young 
apple  trees  infested  with  the  woolly  apple  aphis  develop  knot- 
like galls,  and  if  not  relieved  from  the  sucking  of  the  insects, 
the  roots  will  eventually  die.  As  soon  as  a  root  dies  the  insects 
move  to  a  fresh  root,  so  that  the  absence  of  the  insects  on  a  badly 
galled  root  does  not  indicate  that  the  insects  have  left  the  tree, 
but  that  they  have  simply  moved  to  some  other  root.  The 
galls,  or  knots,  caused  by  the  woolly  apple  aphis  are  shown 
in  (6). 


6 


APPLE  PESTS  AND  INJURIES 


55 


53.  The  insects  on  the  twigs  and  fohage  can  be  destroyed 
by  spraying  with  a  7-per-cent.  solution  of  kerosene  emulsion, 
that  is,  a  mixture  of  1  gallon  of  the  kerosene  emtilsion  and 
about  13  gallons  of  water;  with  miscible  oil  diluted  from  30 
to  40  times;  with  tobacco  extract  or  decoction,  diluted  accord- 
ing to  the  directions  on  the  package;  or  with  a  solution  of 
1  pound  of  whale-oil  soap  and 
6  gallons  of  water.  A  winter 
spray  of  lime-sulphur  of  a  specific 
gravity  of  1.03  is  effective  in 
destroying  any  hibernating  in- 
sects and  the  eggs. 

The  insects  on  the  roots  of 
trees  are  not  so  easily  killed  as 
those  on  the  twigs  and  foliage. 
It  is  recommended  that  the  earth 
for  a  depth  of  from  4  to  5  inches 
and  for  a  radius  of  about  2  feet 
around  each  tree  be  removed  and 
from  1  to  5  pounds  of  tobacco 
dust,  from  2  to  3  gallons  of  a 
10-per-cent.  kerosene  emulsion, 
or  a  dilute  tobacco  extract  be 
sprinkled  over  the  area  from 
which  the  earth  was  removed. 
The  earth  should  then  be  re- 
placed. 

54.  Green    Apple    Aphis. 

In  Fig.  40  is  illustrated  an  apple 
twig  that  shows  the  character- 
istic effect  of  the  common  green 
apple  aphis,  or  green  apple  louse. 
enlarged,  is  shown  in  Fig.  41  (a),  and  a  colony  is  shown  on  the 
under  side  of  a  leaf  in  (b) .  The  insects  feed  usually  on  the  under 
surface  of  the  leaves,  causing  them  to  curl  and  crinkle  and  finally 
to  drop  off,  but  the  insects  also  attack  the  tender  tips  of  grow- 
ing shoots,   especially  grafts  and  water  sprouts.     The  injury 

248—21 


Fig.  40 


One  of  these  insects,  much 


5G 


APPLE  PESTS  AND  INJURIES 


§6 


caused  by  the  insects  is  mostly  confined  to  young  trees,  but 
where  they  are  excessively  abundant  the  foliage  of  old  trees 
and  the  young  fruit  may  be  injured.  The  latter  will  become 
stunted  and  misshapen. 

The  first  brood  of  the  green  apple  aphis  appears  just  before 
the  leaf  buds  open.  This  brood  is  hatched  from  eggs  that  were 
laid  the  previous  fall  on  the  twigs,  especially  in  forks,  around 
the  buds,  and  leaf  scars.  All  the  insects  of  this  first  brood 
are  wingless  females.  They  develop  and  give  birth  in  about 
6  weeks  to  the  second  generation  of  females,  which  are  generally 
wingless.  Each  female  gives  birth  to  from  fifty  to  one  hun- 
dred young.  The  insects  of  the  third  generation,  which  appear 
in  about  6  weeks  after  the  second  generation,  usually  develop 


Fig.  41 

wings  and  migrate  to  other  trees  in  the  immediate  vicinity. 
All  the  insects  that  are  bom  during  the  summer  are  females, 
but  as  soon  as  cool  weather  approaches  in  autumn,  both  males 
and  females  are  bom,  and  the  females  lay  the  eggs  from  which 
the  first  brood  is  hatched  in  the  spring.  During  the  late  fall 
all  the  insects  are  killed  by  cold. 

The  same  methods  of  control  are  applicable  for  the  green 
apple  aphis  as  for  the  woolly  apple  aphis  above  the  surface  of 
the  soil. 

55.     Miscellaneous  Aphides  Affecting  Apple   Trees. 

Besides  the  woolly  and  the  green  apple  aphis,  which  are  espe- 
cially apple-tree  pests,  there  are  several  species  of  aphides  that 
at  times  prove  injurious  to  apple  trees.  Among  these  occa- 
sionally injurious  pests  are  the  rosy  apple  aphis,  the  European 


6 


APPLE  PESTS  AND  INJURIES 


57 


grain  aphis,  and  the  clover  aphis.  In  respect  to  their  effect  on 
apple  trees,  these  insects  resemble  very  much  the  green  apple 
aphis,  but  they  vary  in  respect  to  color  and  character.  The 
methods  of  combating  them  are  the  same  as  those  recom- 
mended for  the  woolly  apple  aphis. 

56.  Leaf -Blister  Mite. — ^Within  recent  years  a  micro- 
scopic mite  known  as  the  leaf -blister  mite  has  attacked  apple 
foliage.     Leaf -blister  mites,  which  are  not  more  than  to  o"  inch 


Fig.  42 

in  length,  pass  the  winter  in  the  buds,  but  on  the  arrival  of  wann 
weather  they  emerge  and  as  the  leaves  unfold  the  mites  burrow 
into  them  and  feed  on  the  tender  tissue.  Although  the  mites 
are  too  small  to  be  easily  seen  by  the  unaided  eye,  their  presence 
in  the  leaves  is  readily  recognized  by  the  reddish  blisters  that 
form  on  the  young  leaves.  These  blisters  later  turn  almost 
black  and  present  a  corky  appearance.  If  the  mites  are  espe- 
cially numerous,  a  large  number  of  the  leaves  may  fall  and  the 
mites  will  attack  the  young  apples.     An  apple  twig  on  which 


58 


APPLE  PESTS  AND  INJURIES 


P) 


both  the  leaves  and  fruit  are  infested  by  the  leaf-bHster  mite 
is  shown  in  Fig.  42. 

Leaf-bhster  mites  are  kept  under  control  by  spraying  as  soon 
as  most  of  the  leaves  have  fallen  in  the  autumn  or  just  as  the  leaf 
buds  begin  to  swell  in  the  spring,  with  a  10-per-cent.  kerosene 
emulsion,  with  miscible  oil,  or  with  lime-sulphur  used  the  same 
as  in  combating  San  Jose  scale.  If  an  infestation  of  the  mites 
is  very  serious,  both  the  fall  and  the  spring  spraying  are  recom- 
mended; ordinarily,  either  spraying  will  be  sufficient. 

57.  Buffalo  Treeliopper. — The  curious-looking  insect 
illustrated  in  Fig.  43  (a)  and  known  as  the  buffalo  treehopper 


Fig.  43 

is  often  the  cause  of  considerable  damage  to  small  limbs  of  the 
apple  tree.  It  is  green  in  color  and  about  f  inch  long.  Buffalo 
treehoppers  damage  the  small  limbs  of  apple  trees  by  depositing 
their  eggs  in  two  characteristic,  curved  wounds  in  the  limbs 
from  early  in  August  imtil  killing  frost  occurs.  From  six  to 
twelve  eggs  are  placed  in  each  slit,  or  wound,  and  each  female 
insect  may  make  several  of  the  double  wounds.     The  bark 


6 


APPLE  PESTS  AND  INJURIES 


59 


between  the  curved  slits  is  cut  entirely  loose  when  the  eggs  are 
deposited  and  soon  dies.  If  the  wounds  are  numerous,  as  is 
shown  on  the  twig  illustrated  in  (6),  the  twig  is  necessarily 
badly  stunted  and  may  die.  The  eggs  hatch  during  May  and 
June,  and  the  nymphs,  or  young  insects,  feed  on  all  kinds 
of  succulent  vegetation.  The  orchards  that  suffer  worst  from 
the  egg-laying  injuries  of  these  little  pests  are  those  that  are 
grown  up  in  weeds. 

To  prevent  the  buffalo  treehopper  from  causing  any  con- 
siderable damage  to  an  orchard,  all  weeds  should  be  kept 
cut  down  and  trees  that  are  badly  injured  by  the  insects 
should  be  well  pruned  and  the  limbs  that  are  removed  should 
be  burned. 

58.  Periodical  Cicada. — In  Fig.  44  (a)  is  shown  the 
mature  periodical  cicada,  commonly  known  as  the  seventeen- 
year  locust.     In  (b)  is  illustrated  the  skin  cast  by  the  full  grown 


Fig.  44 

nymph.  Large  ntimbers  of  the  adults  appear  during  May  and 
June  of  every  seventeenth  year,  although  a  few  may  appear 
during  the  sixteenth  year,  when  large  numbers  of  the  nymphs 
may  be  found  near  the  surface  of  the  groimd.  In  about  3  weeks 
after  the  appearance  of  these  insects  the  females  begin  deposit- 
ing their  eggs  in  the  trunks  of  small  trees  and  in  the  small  limbs 
and  twigs  of  large  trees.  The  female  makes  a  wound  in  the 
wood  in  which  she  deposits  several  eggs;  it  is  claimed  that  each 
one  deposits  from  300  to  500  eggs.  The  damage  done  to  an 
orchard  by  these  insects  is  caused  by  these  wounds.     The 


GO 


APPLE  PESTS  AND  INJURIES 


6 


effects  of  such  wounds  are  shown  in  Fig.  45.  On  small  branches 
the  wound  causes  the  branch  to  die  from  the  point  of  the  wound 
to  the  tip,  and  on  large  limbs  the  scars  caused  by  the  wounds 
are  points  of  attack  for  borers  and  the  wooly  apple  aphis. 

The  adult  cicadas  do  not  eat  but  suck  the  juices  of  plants. 
It   is,    therefore,    impossible   to   poison   them.     Many   of   the 

mature  nymphs  of  the  cicadas  will 
be  destroyed  during  April  and  May 
of  the  year  that  they  are  known  to 
be  due  to  appear,  if  hogs  are  allowed 
to  run  on  land  that  is  known  to  be 
infested  by  the  cicadas.  Young 
orchards  should  not  be  planted  dur- 
ing the  year  or  two  just  previous 
to  the  year  that  cicadas  are  to 
emerge  in  that  vicinity;  neither 
should  budding,  grafting,  or  pruning 
be  practiced  the  year  before  they 
are  to  emerge.  In  July  all  twigs  in 
which  cicada  eggs  have  been  de- 
posited should  be  pruned  off  and 
burned. 

59.     Fruit-Tree  Bark  Beetle. 

In  Fig.  46  (a)  is  shown,  magnified 
many  times,  a  little  black  beetle 
about  ^  inch  long  known  as  the 
fruit-tree  bark  beetle  and  also  as 
the  shot-hole  borer.  The  latter  name 
has  been  given  to  the  insect  from 
the  fact  that  the  larva,  which  is 
shown  in  (6) ,  riddles  the  bark  of  infested  branches  with  small 
holes,  such  as  are  shown  in  the  upper  part  of  (c).  The  lower 
part  of  (c)  shows  the  galleries  of  the  fruit-tree  bark  beetle  as 
they  appear  under  the  bark  of  an  infested  apple  twig.  Three 
or  four  generations  of  these  insects  probably  occur  each  year. 
In  combating  the  fruit-tree  bark  beetle,  it  is  recommended 
that  all  badly  infested  branches  and  even  small  trees  that  are 


Fig.  4.5 


6 


APPLE  PESTS  AND  INJURIES 


61 


badly  infested  should  be  cut  out  and  burned.  The  trees  should 
be  ciiltivated  and  placed  in  a  healthful,  growing  condition, 
because  the  insects  attack 
injured,  dying,  or  dead  trees. 

60.  Apple-Tree  Pru- 
ner. — ^A  long-homed,  brown- 
ish beetle  varying  in  length 
from  I  to  f  inch  appears  dur- 
ing June  or  July  and  deposits 
its  eggs  in  small  twigs.  The 
larva,  upon  hatching,  works 
its  way  down  the  small  twig 
until  it  reaches  a  larger 
branch,  from  which  it  gnaws 
away  so  much  wood  that  the 
first  wind  breaks  off  the  twig. 
The  larva  then  completes  its 
development  in  the  severed 
twig. 

This  insect  is  comparatively  easy  to  keep  in  control  by 
simply  gathering  all  broken  twigs  that  may  be  found  in  the 
orchard  during  the  autimm  and  burning  them. 


Fig.  46 


APPLE  DISEASES 

61.  There  are  a  number  of  diseases  common  to  apples  in 
most  sections  that  are  very  serious,  and  a  larger  niimber  that 
are  less  serious  and  are  controlled  by  the  same  treatments 
that  control  the  most  important  diseases.  In  sections  where 
apple  growing  is  a  comparatively  new  industry,  apple  orchards 
may  be  reasonably  free  from  diseases,  but  in  most  sections 
where  the  climate  is  suitable  the  diseases  are  likely  to  be  intro- 
duced before  apple  growing  has  been  carried  on  very  long. 
Therefore,  to  grow  apples  successfully,  the  orchardist  must 
learn  to  combat  the  diseases  that  attack  the  apple  tree  and  its 
fruit. 


62 


APPLE  PESTS  AND  INJURIES 


§6 


The  effect  of  disease  cannot  be  remedied ;  that  is,  the  leaves 
or  fruit  cannot  be  cured  of  disease  after  it  has  become  estab- 
lished in  the  fruit  or  leaves.  The  only  possible  method  of 
combating  disease  is  by  preventive  measures;  that  is,  by 
measures  to  prevent  the  growth  on  the  fruit  or  leaves  of  the 
organisms  that  cause  disease. 

The  most  important  preventive  measure  is  spraying  with 
some  substance  that  is  sufficiently  toxic  to  fungus  or  bacteria 
to  prevent  their  growth  and  yet  not  seriously  injure  the  foliage 
or  fruit.  The  only  other  available  method  of  fighting  disease 
is  by  destroying  injured  parts  so  that  there  will  be  no  source 
of  infection. 

62.  Bitter  Rot. — The  most  destructive  apple  disease  in 
the  leading  apple-growing  districts  is  claimed  by  many  author- 
ities to  be  bitter  rot,  also  known  as  ripe  rot,  and  as  apple 


Fig.  47 


Fig.  48 


anthracnose.  The  first  two  names  are  somewhat  misleading, 
as  the  disease  does  not  always  cause  the  affected  apple  to 
become  bitter,  nor  does  the  disease  attack  ripe  fruit  only; 
twigs  and  limbs  are  sometimes  affected. 

The  early  stages  of  the  disease  are  shown  by  small  brown 
spots  in  the  tissue  of  the  apple  just  beneath  the  skin.  As 
the  disease  advances  these  spots  become  larger  and  appear 


§  6  APPLE  PESTS  AND  INJURIES  63 

on  the  surface  of  the  apple  as  soft,  usually  wet,  brown,  tan,  or 
black,  circular,  rotten  spots.  As  soon  as  the  spots  have  attained 
a  size  of  about  |  inch  in  diameter  the  center  portion  of  the 
circle  is  sunken  and  the  rotten  part  develops  rapidly.  That 
part  of  the  fruit  near  the  rotten  spot  is  usually  bitter,  and  it  is 
this  character  that  has  caused  the  disease  to  be  named  bitter 
rot.  The  early  stage  of  bitter  rot  is  shown  in  Fig.  47.  As  the 
rotten  spots  increase  in  size,  their  surfaces  become  somewhat 
shriveled  and  wrinkled,  as  shown  in  Fig.  48,  and  near  the  center 
of  the  affected  area  appear  very  small  spore-bearing  pustules 
barely  visible  to  the  eyes  without  the  use  of  a  magnifying  glass. 


X 


.'•v^ 
%- 


Fig.  49 

Diseased  apples  usually  fall  from  the  tree,  but  sometimes  an 
apple  affected  by  bitter  rot  may  remain  on  the  tree  and  become 
dried  and  wrinkled,  as  that  shown  in  Fig.  49.  These  dried 
and  wrinkled  apples  are  sometimes  known  as  mummies. 

Bitter  rot  also  attacks  twigs  and  young  branches,  causing 
cankers,  or  rough  spots,  on  the  bark,  as  is  sho^vn  in  Fig.  50. 

The  first  stages  of  bitter  rot  usually  appear  during  Jtdy 
and  August,  but  under  exceptionally  favorable  conditions, 
such  as  sultry,  warm,  rainy  weather,  and  in  the  southern  part 
of  the  apple-growing  section  the  disease  may  appear  much 
earlier.     During  warm,   sultry,  rainy  seasons  bitter  rot  may 


G4 


APPLE  PESTS  AND  INJURIES 


6 


spread  very  rapidly  and  cause  great  loss  of  apples  within  a 
week.  It  has  been  estimated  by  persons  who  have  made  a 
careful  study  of  the  loss  caused  by  bitter  rot  that  some  years 
this  disease  alone  causes  a  loss  of  $10,000,000  to  the  apple 
growers  of  the  United  States. 

To  keep  bitter  rot  under  control  in  an  apple  orchard,  the 
orchardist  should  pick  and  destroy  all  diseased  apples  and  cut 
out  and  bum  all  cankered  limbs.  In  addition  to  these  pre- 
cautions, it  is  recommended  that  the  orchard  be  sprayed  with 

4-6-50  Bordeaux  mixture,  as 
lime-sulphur  fails  to  control 
it.  In  sections  where  the  dis- 
ease is  well  established,  the 
first  application  should  be 
made  about  6  weeks  after  the 
blossoms  fall ;  a  second  appli- 
cation should  follow  within 
^•'P¥''J^  2  weeks  if  the  disease  is  seri- 
W^W.P^ifW  ous,  or  within  3  weeks  if  it 
'#.-'/.&.  //  IS  only  slight.  Iwo  more  ap- 
plications at  intervals  of  2 
or  3  weeks  are  necessary  in 
sections  where  the  disease  is 
very  serious. 

63.     Apple     Scab. — The 

most  widely  distributed  and 
one  of  the  most  damaging  dis- 
eases of  the  apple  is  apple 
scab.  It  is  more  serious  in  a  wet  climate  than  in  a  dry  one, 
and,  as  it  is  favored  by  cool  weather,  it  is  more  serious  in  the 
northern  part  of  the  apple-growing  section  than  in  the  southern 
part,  although  successfiil  orchardists  find  it  necessary  to  com- 
bat apple  scab  in  all  apple-growing  regions. 

Apple  scab  is  well  described  by  its  name.  It  is  seen  as 
scabby  dark  spots  on  the  foliage  and  fruit.  The  newly  infected 
areas  on  leaves  are  usually  circular  in  form  and  have  a  greenish 
or  light  surface,   but  when  older  they  turn  black.     Leaves 


Fig.  50 


6 


APPLE  PESTS  AND  INJURIES 


65 


infected  with  scab  are  shown  in  Fig.  51.  Badly  infected  leaves 
become  distorted  and  finally  may  fall  off.  Spots  on  the  fruit 
are  also  circular  in  form  and  similar  in  color  to  those  on  the 
leaves.  The  infected  areas  usually  begin  as  small  spots  and 
as  they  enlarge  they  unite  and  form  large,  dark,  irregular  areas, 
which  stop  the  growth  of  the  apple  at  the  point  of  infection 
and  may  very  seriously  distort  the  shape  of  the  fruit.  Sev- 
eral badly  infested  apples  are  shown  in  Fig.  52.     Varieties  of 


Fig.  51 

apples  vary  greatly  in  their  susceptibility  to  attacks  of  scab; 
some  varieties  are  almost  free  from  it  and  other  varieties  are 
very  readily  susceptible. 

The  scab  lives  through  the  winter  on  the  fallen  leaves  and 
spreads  from  them  to  the  young  leaves  in  spring.  Usually 
the  worst  infection  will  be  on  the  lower  branches  in  very  early 
spring. 

This  disease  can  be  controlled  by  the  use  of  either  Bordeaux 
mixture  or  lime-sulphur;  in  fact,  it  is  one  of  the  most  easily 
controlled  diseases.     The  trees  should  be  sprayed,  just  before 


Fig.  52 


Pig.  53 


Fig.  54 


66 


§  6  APPLE  PESTS  AND  INJURIES  67 

the  blossoms  open,  with  a  Bordeaux  mixture  of  a  strength  of 
4-4-50,  and  again  just  after  the  blossoms  fall  with  litne-sulphur 
of  a  specific  gravity  of  from  1.007  to  1.01,  or  with  a  2-3-50  Bor- 
deaux mixture.  In  some  sections  where  scab  is  very  prevalent 
it  may  be  necessary  to  spray  again  within  2  or  3  weeks,  using 
either  the  weak  Bordeaux  mixture  or  the  weak  lime-sulphur. 

64.  Pink  Rot. — Apples  that  are  infested  with  apple  scab 
are  very  likely  to  be  infested  during  autumn,  especially  if  the 
weather  is  wet  and  muggy,  with  a  mold  that  grows  on  the  scabby 
spots ;  at  first  it  is  white,  but  later  turns  pink.  The  skin  around 
and  the  flesh  under  the  pink  miold  turns  brown  and  bitter. 
The  brown  spots  increase  in  size  rapidly  and  the  market  value 
of  the  apples  is  soon  destroyed.  An  apple  badly  infested  with 
pink  rot  is  shown  in  Fig.  53. 

Pink  rot  follows  apple  scab  and  by  successfully  spraying  for 
apple  scab  the  orchardist  will  have  no  losses  from  pink  rot  of 
apples  in  the  fall  after  the  apples  are  harvested. 

65.  Apple  Blotcli. — ^A  disease  that  is  common  in  the 
southern  part  of  the  apple-growing  region  and  that  resembles 
apple  scab  in  its  effect  on  the  fruit,  leaves,  and  twigs  is 
apple  blotch.  The  first  evidence  of  this  disease  on  the  fruit 
is  a  very  small,  inconspicuous,  light-brown,  somewhat  star- 
shaped  blotch.  The  blotch  spreads  radially  until  it  attains 
a  diameter  of  from  |  to  §  inch,  and  becomes  darker  in  color. 
The  margin  of  these  patches  always  has  a  broken  appearance. 
Sometimes  the  spots  are  so  numerous  that  they  join  together 
and  form  large  blotches,  which  may  cover  one-half  or  more 
of  the  apple.  This  disease  sometimes  causes  the  surface  of 
infested  apples  to  crack.  These  cracks,  or  cankers,  often 
intersect,  forming  crosses.  Several  apples  infested  with  apple 
blotch  are  shown  in  Fig.  54.  Apple  blotch  appears  on  the 
leaves  as  very  small,  irregular-shaped,  light-brown  or  yellow 
spots,  very  much  smaller  than  those  of  the  apple  scab.  On 
the  twigs,  especially  on  the  fruit  spurs  and  rapidly  growing 
shoots,  small  cankers  are  produced  that  often  show  cracks 
in  the  dead  bark  as  shown  in  Fig.  55.  These  cankers  are  gen- 
erally small,  being  about  i  inch  wide  and  |  inch  or  more  long. 


OS 


APPLE  PESTS  AND  INJURIES 


§<^> 


At  first  they  appear  as  very  small  purplish-black  blotches, 
but  as  they  increase  in  size  they  become  brown  in  the  center 
and  retain  a  purplish  margin,  although  they  may  finally  become 
gray. 

Apple  blotch  apparently  lives  through  the  winter  on  the  twigs 


Mil 

m 


Pig.  55 


Fig.  56 


and  it  is  from  them  that  infection  of  the  leaves  and  fruit  takes 
place  in  the  spring,  about  4  or  6  weeks  after  the  blossoms  fall. 
The  only  remedy  that  has  been  found  to  control  apple  blotch 
is  spraying  with  Bordeaux  mixture;  lime-sulphur  has,  so  far 
as  known,  failed  to  control  it.  The  first  spraying  should  be 
given  3  or  4  weeks  after  the  blossoms  fall,  so  that  the  Bordeaux 


§  6  APPLE  PESTS  AND  INJURIES  69 

will  be  on  the  leaves  and  fruit  at  the  time  the  infection 
usually  takes  place,  and  in  sections  where  the  disease  is  com- 
mon it  may  be  necessary  to  apply  two  or  three  more  spray- 
ings at  intervals  of  3  weeks.  The  Bordeaux  mixture  should 
be  used  at  a  strength  of  4-4-50. 

66.  Black  Rot. — A  disease  that  causes  reddish-brown 
spots  to  occur  on  apple  leaves  early  in  the  spring  is  known  as 
black  rot.  This  disease  resembles  bitter  rot  in  that  both  dis- 
eases attack  the  foliage,  the  fruit,  and  the  limbs.  Black  rot 
probably  causes  the  greatest  injury  to  large  limbs,  on  which  it 
causes  rough,  black,  wounded  areas,  or  cankers,  such  as  the  one 
shown  in  Fig.  56.  The  bark  on  the  cankered  part  of  a  limb  is 
usually  dead  and  the  new  bark  and  the  wood  growing  around 
the  dead  part  produces  a  sunken  area  that  is  characteristic  of 
the  disease.  In  badly  infected  orchards  the  cankers  sometimes 
surround,  or  girdle,  a  limb  and  thus  kill  it. 

At  first,  black  rot  shows  on  apples  as  small  reddish-brown 
spots,  but  as  the  spots  increase  in  size  the  entire  fruit  becomes 
infected  and  assumes  a  very  dark-brown  or  black  color.  Badly 
infected  apples  sometimes  shrivel,  but  they  do  not  take  on  the 
characteristic  shriveled,  wrinkled,  mummified  appearance  of 
apples  infected  with  bitter  rot. 

The  fungus  that  causes  black  rot  also  attacks  the  leaves 
and  causes  the  disease  known  as  leaf  spot  and  as  frog  eye.  The 
spots  on  the  leaves  caused  by  black  rot  are  at  first  very  small 
purplish  spots,  which,  as  they  enlarge,  .become  reddish-brown 
and  finally  a  grayish  color.  During  the  early  part  of  the  sum- 
mer the  spots  are  circular,  but  during  the  latter  part  of  the 
summer  the  spots  may  enlarge  and  become  irregular  in  shape. 

The  same  treatment  is  recommended  for  black  rot  as  for 
bitter  rot. 

67.  Pacific-Coast  CarLker. — ^A  disease  that  causes  much 
loss  in  apple  orchards  in  the  northwestern  part  of  the  United 
States  and  in  British  Columbia  is  known  as  Pacific-coast  canker 
and  as  black-spot  canker.  This  disease  infects  the  bark  and 
sap  wood  of  the  twigs  and  branches  of  trees  and  also  the  fruit 
after  it  has  been  placed  in  storage. 


711 


APPLE  PESTS  AND  INJURIES 


6 


The  cankers  on  the  twigs  and  limbs  are  similar  in  general 
appearance  to  bitter-rot  canker,  although  the  Pacific-coast 
canker  is  somewhat  more  roimd,  and,  when  old,  the  dead, 
diseased  part  is  separated  from  the  healthy  part  by  a  distinct 
fissure  and  may  finally  faU.  out,  leaving  the  wood  exposed. 

Pacific-coast  canker  first  appears  on  the  fruit  as  smaU,  light- 
brown,  circular,  rotten  spots,  which  later  turn  very  dark  brown 
or  black  and  become  tough,  wrinkled,  and  dry,  with  concen- 
tric circles  of  spore-bearing  pustules.  An  apple  partly  rotted 
by  this  disease  is  shown  in  Fig.  57. 

68.  Miscellaneous  Cankers. — Several  different  kinds 
of  cankers  are  reported  and  described  by  various  plant  pathol- 
ogists, but,  because  of  the 
fact  that  the  twigs  and 
branches  infected  by  these 
cankers  are  so  similar  to 
those  that  are  shown  in 
Figs.  50,  55,  and  56  that  a 
microscopic  examination  of 
the  fungus  causing  each 
disease  is  necessary  for  a 
determination  of  the  par- 
ticular disease,  and  because 
practically  all  canker  dis- 
eases are  treated  the  same 
way,  even  a  brief  descrip- 
tion of  several  cankers,  including  the  Illinois  canker,  the  Euro- 
pean canker,  and  the  hark  canker,  are  not  presented  in  this  Section. 

69.  Soft  Rot. — The  rot  of  apples  near  the  end  of  their 
keeping  season  is  known  as  soft  rot,  also  as  bin  rot  and  as  blue 
mold.  The  trouble  is  known  as  soft  rot,  because  the  light  tan- 
colored  rotten  part  of  the  apple  is  soft  and  watery;  as  bin  rot, 
because  this  rot  does  not  usually  attack  apples  until  they  are 
stored,  usually  in  bins;  as  blue  mold,  because  over  all  cracks 
in  a  decaying  apple  appear  a  very  short  fur-like  growth  of 
fungus.  This  fungous  growth  is  white  at  first,  but  soon  changes 
to  a  bluish  green.     The  spores  of  this  mold  cannot  force  their 


v#     ^ 


'     '.'t-'.* 


Fig.  58 


§  6     24909 


6 


APPLE  PESTS  AND  INJURIES 


71 


X 


way  through  the  healthy  skin  of  an  apple,  therefore,  the  best 
means  of  controlling  soft  rot  is  care  to  prevent  bruising  or 
breaking  the  skin  of  the  apples. 

70.  Fly  Speck  and  Sooty  Blotcli. — The  disease  illustrated 
in  Fig.  58  is  known  as  fly  speck,  as  sooty  blotch,  and  also  as 
cloiid.  Although  the  disease  is  commonly  spoken  of  as  two  dis- 
tinct diseases,  authori-  __^ 
ties  are  generally  agreed  J"  j^ 
that  both  conditions, 
that  is,  the  small  black 
specks  that  closely  re- 
semble fly  specks  and 
arranged  in  clusters  and 
the  black  soot-like 
blotches,  are  caused  by 
the  same  fungus .  How- 
ever, some  apples  may 
show  only  the  sooty 
blotches  and  other 
apples  only  the  fly- 
speck  spots.  Both  the 
small  specks  and  the 
blotches  appear  about 
the  time  that  the  apples 
begin  to  maXvse  and  the 
specks  or  the  blotches 
develop  more  rapidly 
during  moist  weather 
and  in  orchards  with 
dense  foliage  than  dur- 
ing dry  weather  or  in  an  orchard  where  the  trees  are  open 
headed  and  well  pruned. 

The  market  value  of  apples  that  are  badly  discolored  by  fly 
speck  or  sooty  blotch  is  often  materially  reduced.  The  disease 
is  easily  controlled  by  the  sprays  recommended  for  bitter  rot. 

71.  Apple  Rust. — Orchards  in  the  vicinity  of  cedar  trees 
are  subject  to  a  disease  known  as  apple  rust,  also  as  cedar  rust 

248—22 


Fig.  59 


72  APPLE  PESTS  AND  INJURIES  §6 

and  as  ntst.  This  disease  is  usually  easily  recognized  by  the 
yellowish  orange-colored  spots  on  the  leaves.  Although  the 
spots  occur  also  on  the  fruit  and  the  twigs,  the  spots  on  the 
leaves  are  by  far  more  common  and  more  noticeable  than  are 
those  on  the  fruit  or  the  twigs.  The  appearance  of  this  disease 
on  infected  leaves  and  twigs  is  shown,  in  Fig.  59.  The  effect 
of  the  disease  on  the  fruit  is  shown  in  Fig.  60.  The  fungus  that 
causes  this  disease  spends  the  winter  on  cedar  trees,  producing 
on  them  growths,  or  knots,  known  as  cedar  apples.  In  Fig.  61 
are  shown  cedar  apples  in  three  stages  of  maturity.  In  (a)  is 
shown  a  cedar  apple  as  it  appears  during  early  winter;  during 
the  spring  these  cedar  apples  or  gall-like  growths  appear  as 
shown  in  (6) ;  and  in  (c)  is  shown  the  large  gelatinous  growth 


Fig.  60 

expanded  by  spring  rains.  From  this  latter  form  are  pro- 
duced the  spores  that  cause  the  rust  on  the  apple  leaves, 
twigs,  and  fruit  during  the  summer. 

If  rust  is  injurious  to  orchards,  all  cedar  trees  in  the  vicinity 
of  the  orchard  should  be  destroyed.  If  this  is  impracticable, 
it  is  recommended  that  the  orchard  be  sprayed  with  Bordeaux 
mixture  as  is  recommended  for  apple  scab. 

72.  Fruit  Spot  of  Apples. — A  disease  that  sometimes 
attacks  apples  grown  in  the  eastern  half  of  the  United  States  is 
known  as  the  fruit  spot  of  apples.  This  disease  appears  from 
the  first  to  the  middle  of  August  as  small  spots  on  the  surface 
of  the  apples.  On  red  apples  the  spots  are  of  a  deeper  red  than 
the  rest  of  the  apple  and  on  light  or  green  apples  the  spots  are 


6 


APPLE  PESTS  AND  INJURIES 


73 


of  a  darker  green  color.  As  the  fruit  ripens  the  spots  appear 
more  prominent  and  on  red  apples,  such  as  the  Baldwins,  which 
are  especially  susceptible  to  the  disease,  often  become  brown 
or  black.     Also  the  flesh  just  beneath  the  spots  on  the  skin 


Fig.  61 

becomes  brown  and  corky.  The  effects  of  this  disease  are 
confined  to  the  skin  and  to  the  tissue  immediately  beneath  it. 
The  same  treatment  that  is  recommended  for  apple  scab 
will  effectively  control  fruit  spot  of  apples.  However,  if  only 
the  latter  disease  is  to  be  combated  the  sprays  may  be  applied 
about  1  week  later  than  when  applied  for  apple  scab. 


7t  APPLE  PESTS  AND  INJURIES  §G 

73.  Baldwin  Spot . — The  effects  of  a  disease  that  somewhat 

resembles  fruit  spot  of  apples  and  is  variously  known  as  Baldwin 
spot,  fruit  pit,  and  hitter  pit  are  numerous  small,  brown  flecks 
throughout  the  diseased  apples  and  especially  in  the  outer 
I  inch  of  the  pulp.  During  the  early  stages  of  the  disease 
small  spots  or  slight  depressions  resembling  small  bruises  appear 
on  the  surface  of  the  apples.  The  color  of  the  spots,  or  pits, 
is  practically  the  same  as  that  of  the  apple  on  which  they 
occur.  Later,  the  pits  become  more  distinct,  showing  as  sunken 
areas  of  from  i  to  J  inch  in  diameter.  In  fact,  as  the  disease 
advances,  several  of  the  pits  may  join  and  form  one  large  pit. 
Also,  the  surface  of  the  pits  becomes  dark  brown.  Baldwin 
apples  are  supposed  to  be  especially  susceptible  to  this  disease, 
although  other  varieties  are  known  to  be  attacked.  It  is 
reported  to  be  worst  during  warm,  rainy  seasons  and  in  the  fruit 
on  limbs  or  trees  that  have  been  weakened  by  canker  or  by 
overbearing.  Also,  the  disease  is  more  apt  to  appear  in  large 
overgrown  than  in  medium-sized  apples. 

The  cause  of  Baldwin  spot  is  not  known  neither  is  there  any 
known  way  to  prevent  it. 

74.  Apple  Scald. — The  skin  of  some  apples  changes  while 
they  are  in  storage  to  a  brownish  color.  This  change  of 
color  of  apples  in  storage  in  known  as  apple  scald,  the  first 
effects  of  which  are  the  appearance  of  light-brown  spots  on  the 
apples.  These  spots  gradually  enlarge  until  they  finally  cover 
the  entire  surface  of  the  apple.  The  color  changes  to  dark 
brown  and  finally  may  become  almost  black.  At  first  only  the 
skin  and  the  outer  part  of  the  flesh  of  the  fruit  are  discolored; 
later  a  large  part  of  the  flesh  becomes  discolored.  The  trouble 
is  not  definitely  understood,  but  fruit  that  is  grown  and  matured 
under  favorable  conditions  will  usually  keep  through  its  normal 
keeping  season  without  injury. 

75.  Fire  Blight. — The  disease  commonly  known  as  fire 
blight,  but  also  known  as  twig  blight,  is  generally  more  serious 
on  the  pear  than  on  the  apple.  The  effects  of  the  disease  can  be 
seen  most  readily  in  spring,  about  3  weeks  after  the  blossoming 
period,  at  which  time  many  of  the  flower  clusters  shrivel  and 


§  G  APPLE  PESTS  AND  INJURIES  75 

die  and  the  twigs  turn  black  and  dry  up  as  if  scorched  by  fire. 
During  the  winter  the  disease  may  be  recognized  by  the  leaves 
remaining  on  the  diseased  branches.  This  disease  is  caused 
by  bacteria  that  gain  entrance  into  the  twigs  either  through 
the  blossoms  or  through  wounds.  The  disease  travels  down- 
wards through  the  twigs  at  a  rate  of  2  or  3  inches  per  day  if 
conditions  are  favorable,  but  has  been  known  to  travel  1  foot 
or  more  in  a  single  day.  However,  under  conditions  favorable 
to  the  healthful  growth  of  a  tree,  fire  bhght  usually  affects  only 
a  few  inches  of  the  tips  of  the  branches. 

Many  of  the  diseased  twigs  and  branches  die  the  first  year  of 
the  infection  and  the  bacteria  in  the  branches  die  also;  but  a 
few,  probably  only  a  very  few,  of  the  diseased  branches  remain 
alive,  and  it  is  in  these  branches  that  the  bacteria  live  during 
the  winter  months.  As  the  sap  begins  to  flow  during  the  spring, 
the  infected  twigs  become  the  centers  of  infection  and  from 
them  exudes  a  milk-like  fluid  that  teems  with  the  bacteria 
that  are  the  direct  cause  of  the  disease.  Young  apples  some- 
times are  infected  and  as  a  result  become  gorged  with  a  slimy 
material  that  likewise  teems  with  the  bacteria  that  cause  fire 
blight.  Both  the  milk-like  fluid  in  the  twigs  and  the  slime  in 
the  apples  attracts  insects,  especially  bees,  which  carry  the 
bacteria  to  other  parts  of  the  tree  or  to  other  trees  and  thus 
spread  the  infection. 

Fire  blight  cannot  be  controlled  by  spraying.  The  only 
known  means  of  successfully  combating  the  disease  is  by  cutting 
out  and  burning  every  twig  that  shows  infection.  All  apple, 
pear,  quince,  wild  crab  apple,  mountain  ash,  service  berry, 
and  hawthorn  trees  in  or  within  |  mile  of  the  orchard  should 
be  examined  and  all  twigs  showing  the  effects  of  flre  blight 
should  be  cut  out  and  burned.  The  best  time  to  cut  out  the 
diseased  portions  of  the  trees  is  probably  during  the  fall,  for 
the  contrast  between  healthy  and  diseased  twigs  is  readily  seen 
at  that  time.  In  cutting  out  the  diseased  twigs  the  orchardist 
should  remove  the  twig  from  6  to  12  inches  below  the  indication 
of  the  disease.  If  a  cut  should  be  made  into  diseased  wood 
the  knife  or  the  cutting  part  of  the  pruning  instrument  used 
should  be  sterilized  by  wiping  it  with  a  cloth  saturated  with  a 


7(; 


APPLE  PESTS  AND  INJURIES 


6 


strong  solution  of  bichloride  of  mercury,  which  is  more  com- 
monly known  as  corrosive  sublimate.  A  solution  having  a 
strength  known  as  1  to  1,000  should  be  used.  Directions  for 
making  a  solution  of  this  strength  can  be  secured  from  druggists 
who  sell  the  material.  All  large  wounds  made  in  cutting  out 
diseased  branches  should  be  disinfected  with  the  corrosive- 
sublimate  solution. 


76.  Root  Rot. — In  certain  apple-growing  sections  many 
apple  trees  die  without  any  visible  cause  for  the  trouble,  but 

on  examination  the 
root  system  of  a  dead 
tree  will  be  found  to 
be  not  only  dead  but 
partly  decayed.  Root 
rot  is  claimed  to  be 
most  prevalent  in 
orchards  that  have 
been  planted  on  land 
that  has  recently  been 
cleared  of  forest 
growth.  Also,  some 
investigators  are  in- 
clined to  associate  the 
mushroom  fungi 
known  as  clitocybe 
with  the  disease,  and 
because  of  this  associ- 
ation the  disease  is 
sometimes  called 
clitocyhose.  As  a 
matter  of  fact,  it  is 
reasonable  to  believe 
that  there  may  be  several  diseases  that  affect  the  root  system 
of  trees  and  cause  their  death. 

As  the  first  symptom  of  diseases  that  destroy  the  root  systems 
of  trees  is  the  dying  of  the  trees,  practically  the  only  means 
of  control  are  those  of  prevention.     It  has  been  recommended 


Fig.  62 


§  6  APPLE  PESTS  AND  INJURIES  77 

that  all  sttunps  and  roots  shoiild  be  removed  from  the  soil 
and  one  or  two  grain  or  other  general  farm  crops  be  grown  on 
it  before  apple  trees  are  planted.  All  infected  parts  of  diseased 
trees  should  be  burned. 

77.  Crown  Gall. — Growths  such  as  the  one  shown  in 
Fig.  62,  and  known  as  crown  gall  and  also  as  plant  cancer,  are 
sometimes  found  on  nursery  trees.  This  disease  is  caused 
by  bacteria  and  is  very  infectious.  Apple  trees  should  not  be 
sectired  from  nurseries  in  which  crown  gall  is  known  to  exist, 
and  aU  trees  showing  this  disease  should  be  burned. 

78.  Mildew.— A  dense,  light-colored,  felt-lilce  fungous 
growth  that  sometimes  occurs  on  the  foliage  of  yoimg  apple 
trees  is  known  as  mildew.  This  disease  is  common!}'-  found  on 
young  apple  trees  in  the  nursery,  but  it  sometimes  attacks 
rapidly  growing  young  trees  in  orchards. 

Mildew  is  easily  kept  from  causing  any  considerable  damage 
by  spraying  with  Bordeaux  or  with  lime-sulphur  as  recom- 
mended for  any  of  the  diseases  that  affect  the  foliage  of  the 
apple  tree.  If  it  is  desired  to  treat  the  disease  separately,  as  is 
sometimes  the  case  in  nurseries,  an  application  of  an  ammoniacal 
copper-carbonate  solution  should  be  made  as  the  leaves  unfold 
and  should  be  repeated  every  2  weeks  imtil  time  for  budding. 


MISCELLANEOUS  INJURIES 

79.  Sun  Scald. — The  dying  of  the  bark  usually  on  the 
southwest  side  of  the  trunks  of  trees  is  sometimes  known  as 
sun  scald.  Sometimes  the  bark  cracks  and  falls  away  from  the 
tree;  in  other  cases  it  does  not.  In  Fig.  63  is  shown  the  trunk 
of  a  young  apple  tree  injured  by  sun  scald.  This  injury  is 
caused  by  the  unequal  heating  of  different  sides  of  the  trunk 
of  the  tree  during  the  winter.  Sometimes  injury  similar  to 
sun  scald  is  observed  on  the  northeast  side  of  the  tree.  Injury 
in  such  cases  is  claimed  to  be  caused  by  a  freeze  occurring  in 
the  fall  before  the  northeast  side  of  the  tree  has  become  accus- 
tomed to  cold  weather.  The  northeast  side  of  a  tree  is  the  last 
part  to  become  dormant  in  the  fall. 


78 


APPLE  PESTS  AND  INJURIES 


6 


Sun-scald  areas  are  easily  infected  by  the  spores  of  fungi  that 

cause  the  various  cankers,  and  for  this  reason  all  sun-scalded  areas 

should  be  scraped  down  to  healthy  bark  and  wood  and  be  painted. 

Sun  scald  may  be  prevented  by  growing  low-headed  trees 

so  that  the  branches  may  shade  the  trunk  and  by  placing  a  tree 

protector  around  the  tree 
during  the  winter.  White- 
washing the  tree  trunk  also 
tends  to  prevent  the  tree 
from  becoming  unduly 
heated  on  the  side  exposed 
to  the  direct  rays  of  the 
sun. 


80.  Girdling  of 
Trees. — Rabbits  will  eat 
bark  from  young  trees  and 
sometimes  from  trees  4  or 
5  inches  in  diameter,  from 
the  surface  of  the  ground 
to  as  high  as  they  can 
reach.  If  the  bark  is  eaten 
off  entirely  around  the  tree 
it  will  die,  as  plant-food 
cannot  reach  roots  except 
through  the  live  tissue  of 
the  bark.  Mice  often  gir- 
dle small  or  even  large 
trees  near,  or  just  below, 
the  surface  of  the  ground. 

One  of  the  best  ways  to 
prevent  rabbits  from  eat- 
ing the  bark  of  trees  is  to 
kill  the  rabbits.  If  this 
is  impracticable,  a   piece 


Fig.  63 


of  wood  veneer  or  wire  netting  should  be  placed  around  the 
trunks.  The  wood  veneer  or  wire  netting  shoiild  extend  from 
the   ground  upwards   for  from   18   to   20   inches.     In  some 


§  6  APPLE  PESTS  AND  INJURIES  79 

sections,  instead  of  protecting  each  tree,  the  orchardist 
surrounds  the  orchard  with  a  rabbit-proof  fence.  A  wood- 
veneer  protection  around  a  tree  with  the  soil  banked  up  around 
the  base  of  the  protector  is  the  best  means  of  preventing 
injury  from  mice.  However,  if  rubbish  in  which  the  mice 
may  hide  is  not  allowed  to  accumulate  about  the  orchard  but 
little  injury  will  be  caused  by  these  pests. 

81.  Breaking  of  Trees. — The  limbs  of  trees  sometimes 
break  under  heavy  crops  of  fruit  in  summer  and  under  loads 
of  ice  in  winter.  To  prevent  the  trees  from  being  broken,  the 
fruit  should  be  thinned  or  the  limbs  should  be  held  up  by  means 
of  props.  If  small  trees  are  heavily  loaded  with  fruit  the  limbs 
on  one  side  of  the  tree  are  sometimes  tied  by  means  of  wire  or 
cord  to  limbs  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  tree.  Sometimes  a 
wire  or  cord  is  placed  outside  of  all  the  principal  branches  and 
then  drawn  taut,  thus  supporting  the  branches  of  the  entire 
top.  If  there  is  danger  of  the  tree  splitting  down  the  trunk,  a 
bolt  should  be  placed  through  the  body  of  the  tree  or  through 
two  opposite  limbs  in  such  a  manner  that  they  will  brace  each 
other.  Probably  the  best  means  of  preventing  trees  from  being 
broken  down  by  ice  or  by  an  exceptionally  heavy  crop  of  fruit 
is  to  keep  the  trees  weU  pruned. 

82.  Bark  Binding. — The  bark  of  trees  sometimes  becomes 
so  tough  and  rigid  that  it  prevents  the  natural  growth  of  the 
body  of  the  tree.  This  condition  of  the  bark  may  be  caused 
by  various  conditions,  such  as  a  sudden  checking  of  the  growth 
of  the  tree,  thus  reducing  its  vigor;  the  rubbing  of  hogs  or  other 
livestock  against  the  bark  of  trees;  and  the  growth  of  lichens 
and  other  parasites  on  the  bark. 

Bark  binding  may  be  prevented  by  keeping  the  trees  in  a 
vigorous  condition,  by  not  pasturing  hogs  permanently  in  the 
orchard,  and  by  spraying  the  trees  sufficiently  to  keep  the  bark 
free  from  disease  and  in  a  healthy,  growing  condition. 

After  the  bark  has  become  bound,  possibly  the  best  remedy 
is  to  thoroughly  scrape  off  all  dead,  loose,  and  diseased  bark 
and  if  necessary  to  slit  tlie  bark  up  and  down  the  trunk  of  the 


80  APPLE  PESTS  AND  INJURIES  §  G 

tree.     Pruning  the  trees  severely  so  as  to  produce  a  vigorous 
growth  will  often  accomplish  satisfactory  results. 

83.  Rough.  Bark. — On  some  trees  the  old  bark  breaks 
loose,  keeping  the  body  of  the  tree  and  main  limbs  very  rough. 
This  does  not  necessarily  indicate  an  unhealthy  condition  of 
the  tree,  but  the  rough  bark  is  a  disadvantage  in  that  it  forms 
a  sheltering  place  for  insects  like  the  codling  moth,  and  is  a 
possible  host  for  some  plant  diseases.  Many  of  the  best 
orchardists  scrape  aU  the  rough  bark  from  the  trees.  To  do 
this,  a  triangular  trowel  with  a  strong  handle  is  used. 

84 .  Spray  Inj  ury . — ^Although  sprays  are  the  most  valuable 
remedies  that  orchardists  can  use  in  combating  insects  and 
fungous  diseases  that  attack  the  apple  orchard,  the  sprays  some- 
times cause  injury  to  the  foliage  and  fruit  of  the  sprayed  trees. 
The  principal  spray  injury  is  that  caused  by  Bordeaux  mixture. 
This  injury  is  commonly  known  as  Bordeaux  injury,  and 
affects  both  the  leaves  and  the  fruit.  The  injury  is  much  worse 
during  rainy,  wet,  muggy  weather  than  during  dry,  bright 
weather;  it  begins  to  appear  in  a  few  days  after  the  spray  is 
applied  and  continues  to  increase  in  extent  for  several  weeks. 

The  injiu-y  causes  the  leaves  to  become  spotted;  at  first  the 
spots  are  very  small  and  circular,  but  later  they  enlarge  and 
become  irregular  in  shape  and  the  leaves  may  turn  yellow  and 
fall.  In  some  cases  as  many  as  one-half  of  the  leaves  have 
reported  to  have  fallen  as  a  result  of  Bordeaux  injiu-y. 

The  injury  on  the  fruit  first  appears  as  very  small  brown  or 
black  specks.  These  specks  enlarge  and  cause  on  the  mature 
apple  the  characteristic  corky  russeting  like  that  on  a  Rhode 
Island  Greening,  shown  in  Fig.  64.  Badly  injured  fruit  is 
nearly  always  distorted  somewhat  in  shape.  The  russeted 
areas  are  more  or  less  shrunken  and  sometimes  the  half -grown 
injiired  apples  are  shrunken  and  cracked  like  those  injured  by 
scab,  but  they  do  not  show  the  characteristic  scabs.  The  late- 
keeping  quality  of  apples  is  greatly  reduced  by  Bordeaux 
injury,  as  is  also  the  sale  value  of  newly  picked  apples. 

If  lime-sulphur  causes  injury  or  russeting  to  the  fruit  it  is  so 
slight  that  investigators  cannot  distinguish  the  injury  from  the 


Fig.  64 


§  6     24909 


§  6  APPLE  PESTS  AND  INJURIES  81 

natural  russeting  of  maturing  fruit.  Lime-sulphtu  does,  how- 
ever, cause  some  injury  to  the  foHage.  This  injury  consists 
of  brown  spots  or  brown  margins  appearing  on  the  leaves  and  is 
supposed  to  be  caused  by  the  lime-sulphur  becoming  more 
saturated  as  it  dries.  Sometimes  the  entire  leaves  are  affected 
at  once,  but  lime-sulphur  injury  is  at  its  worst  in  a  few  days 
after  the  spray  is  applied. 


APPLE  HARVESTING,  STORING, 
AND  MARKETING 


HARVESTING  OF  APPLES 


PICKING 

1.  Picking  Receptacles. — A  picking  receptacle  that  is 
often  used  for  apples  is  the  round  half-bushel  basket  with  a 
swing  handle,  a  form  of  which  is 
shown  in  Fig.  1.  Such  baskets 
are  easy  to  handle  and  when  they 
are  used  there  is  less  likelihood 
of  the  fruit  being  bruised  than 
when  larger  receptacles  are  used. 
It  is  a  good  plan  to  line  the 
baskets  with  burlap  or  some  sim- 
ilar material,  as  shown  in  the 
illustration;  this  has  a  tendency 
to  prevent  bruising  of  the  fruit. 
An  S-shaped  wire  hook  is  usually 
attached  to  the  handle  in  order 
that  the  basket  may  be  hung  on 
a  limb,  thus  allowing  the  picker 
to  have  free  use  of  both  hands 
for  picking. 

In  some  sections,  wide-topped  10-quart  galvanized-iron  pails 
are  used  as  picking  receptacles  and  are  found  to  be  very  satis- 
factory.    These  pails  are  easier  to  handle  than  baskets,  and,  as 

COPYRIGHTED    BY    INTERNATIONAL    TEXTBOOK    COMPANY.       ALL    RIGHTS    RESERVED 

§7 


Fig.  1 


APPLE  HARVESTING,  STORING, 


§7 


a  rule,  will  last  longer,  but  they  are  somewhat  more  expensive. 
Burlap  should  be  used  for  lining  the  pails  to  prevent  bruising  of 
the  fruit. 

In  Fig.  2  is  illustrated  a  patented  fruit-picking  receptacle 
that  has  some  excellent  features.  It  is  simply  a  bottomless  pail 
that  is  lined  with  canvas,  the  canvas  extending  below  the 
lower  rim  of  the  pail.  When  the  receptacle  is  being  used  to 
hold  fruit,  the  draw  string,  which  can  be  seen  in  the  illustration, 
is  pulled  taut  and  the  ring  is  placed  over  the  hook  on  the  side 
of  the  pail.    When  the  pail  is  to  be  emptied  it  is  lowered  into 


Fig.  2 

the  box  or  barrel,  the  draw  string  is  released,  and  the  fruit  is 
allowed  to  pass  out  of  the  lower  end  of  the  canvas.  By  using 
the  device  in  this  way  there  is  practically  no  bruising  of  the 
fruit. 

In  Fig.  3  is  shown  a  picking  receptacle  that  is  used  to  some 
extent  in  the  western  part  of  the  United  States.  It  consists  of 
a  metal  container  that  is  made  in  such  a  way  that  it  will  break 
apart  at  the  middle,  a  wire  frame  and  a  clamp  for  holding  the 
two  halves  together,  and  a  web  strap  for  carrying  the  device. 
When  the  container  is  to  be  emptied  all  that  is  necessary  is  to 


§7 


AND  MARKETING 


release  the  clamp,  this  allowing  the  container  to  break  at  the 
middle,  as  shown  in  Fig.  4. 


Fig.  3 


Fig.  4 


Apple  pickers  often  make  use  of  a  two-bushel  grain  sack  as 
a  picking  receptacle.    The  sack  is  carried  by  ineans  of  a  small 


APPLE  HARVESTING,  STORING, 


§7 


rope  or  strap,  which  is  tied  to  a  comer  of  the  sack  at  each  end 
and  thrown  over  one  shoulder  of  the  picker,  as  shown  in  Fig.  5. 
Such  a  receptacle  is  convenient,  as  both  hands  are  free  to  do 
the  picking,  but  the  fruit  in  the  sack  is  almost  sure  to  be  bruised 
by  the  movements  of  the  picker.    For  this  reason,  sacks  'are 


Fig.  5 


Fig.  6 


unsatisfactory  for  picking  receptacles  and  careful  orchardists 
will  not  sanction  their  use. 

In  Fig.  6  is  illustrated  a  receptacle  known  as  the  apron  picking 
bag.  This  has  been  found  to  be  a  good  picking  receptacle  par- 
ticularly for  fancy  fruit.     Such  bags  can  be  purchased  cheaply 


§7 


AND  MARKETING 


or  they  may  easily  be  made  at  home.  One  of  the  principal 
advantages  of  this  receptacle  is  that  the  fruit  is  not  poured  out 
but  must  be  taken  out  carefully  by  hand.  This  may  seem  to  be 
a  disadvantage,  but  it  should  be  remembered  that  fancy  fruit 
must  be  handled  without  being  even  slightly  bruised.    Another 


Fig.  7 


advantage  of  the  apron  picking  bag  is  that  it  hangs  in  a  con- 
venient position  for  the  picker. 

In  Fig.  7  is  shown  a  patented  picking  bag  that  is  extensively 
used  in  some  sections.  The  bag  is  emptied  by  loosening  a  draw 
string;  this  allows  the  apples  to  pass  out  through  the  bottom 
of  the  bag,  as  illustrated  in  Fig.  8. 

248—23 


APPLE  HARVESTING,  STORING, 


§7 


A  number  of  other  patented  picking  receptacles  that  have 
more  or  less  merit  are  on  the  market.  Before  purchasing  one 
of  these  devices  a  grower  should  consider  whether,  by  its  use, 
there  is  a  likelihood  of  the  fruit  being  bruised.  No  form  of 
picking  receptacle  that  is  likely  to  cause  injury  to  the  fruit 
should  be  used  in  an  apple  orchard. 

2.  Ladders. — It  is  important,  when  picking  apples,  to  have 
a  good  supply  of  ladders  available.    The  kind  to  use  will  depend 


-   m^. 


Fig.  8 


largely  on  the  height  of  the  fruit  above  the  ground.  Where  the 
fruit  is  hanging  near  the  ground,  step  ladders  are  suitable. 
Of  these  there  are  two  general  types,  the  common  step  ladders 
with  four  legs  and  the  so-called  fruit  ladders  with  three  legs. 
Several  forms  of  the  latter  are  shown  in  Fig.  9.  These  ladders 
are  especially  desirable  for  use  on  uneven  ground,  as  they  will 
stand  steadily  and  are  not  troublesome  to  move  about  the  trees. 
For  fairly  tall  trees  the  so-called  Japanese  ladder,  which  is 
illustrated  in  Fig.. 10  (a),  is  satisfactory.    Ladders  of  this  kind 


Fig.  9 


APPLE  HARVESTING,  STORING, 


§7 


are  light,  easy  to  handle,  and  are  fairly  stable  on  the  groimd. 
In  Fig.  10  (b)  is  shown  a  form  of  ladder  that  can  be  easily  trans- 
ported from  one  part  of  the  orchard  to  another.  This  ladder  can 
be  used  with  either  the  end  a  or  the  end  b  uppermost,  as  desired ; 
if  the  fruit  is  high,  the  ladder  should  be  placed  so  that  the  end  a 
is  uppermost,  but  if  the  fruit  is  near  the  groimd,  the  ladder 
should  be  turned  over  so  that  the  end  b  is  uppermost.  As  a  rule, 
ladders  of  this  kind  are  made  so  that  the  end  a,  when  uppermost. 


Fig.  10 


is  twice  as  high  from  the  ground  as  the  end  b,  when  it  is  upper- 
most. The  single-rail  form  of  ladder,  which  is  illustrated  in 
Fig.  ID  (c),  is  sometimes  used  when  the  fruit  is  on  taU  trees. 
This  ladder,  although  light  and.  easy  to  handle,  does  not  stand 
very  steadily. 

In  Fig.  11  are  shown  three  forms  of  .ladders  that  are  used  for 
picking  fruit  from  high-headed  trees.  The  form  of  ladder  shown 
in  (a)  is  termed  regular ;  the  forms  shown  in  (6)  and  (c)  are  Imown 


§7 


AND  MARKETING 


as  pointed.    The  ladder  shown  in  (c)  is  an  extension  ladder  and 

is  designed  for  picking  fruit 

from  very  high  trees.    Reg- 
ular ladders   are  generally 

placed  against  the  sides  of 

the  trees  and  for  this  reason 

are  not  entirely  satisfactory, 

as  such  practice  is  likely  to 

break    the   branches.    The 

so-called     pointed    ladders 

are  provided  with  a   strip 

of  wood  a,  which  may  be 

placed  in  crotches  formed 

by   limbs.     When  used  in 

this  manner  there  is  little 

danger  of  the  ladder  injur- 
ing the  trees. 

Another  good  form  of 

picking  ladder  is  the  plat- 
form ladder,  one  of  which       c^^  ^^>  c^^ 

is  shown  in  Fig.  12.     This  ^'''-  ^^ 

ladder  consists  of  three  Hght  ladders  that  are  hinged  onto  a 

common  support   a.     Two  of  these  platform  ladders  with  a 

board  laid  across  them 
through  the  tree  form  a  very 
desirable  scaffold  for  use 
when  picking  apples  that  are 
in  the  center  of  trees,  the 
pickers  being  able  to  get 
through  the  trees  without 
injuring  the  fruit  spurs  or 
limbs. 

3 .    Wagon  for  Use  When 

Picking  Apples. — ^Forhaul- 

^^'^'  -^^  ing  fruit  about   an  orchard 

during  the  picking  season,  a  low-down  wagon,  such  as  the  one 

shown  in  Fig.  13  (a),  is  desirable,  as  less  lifting  of  the  fruit 


10 


APPLE  HARVESTING,  STORING, 


§7 


packages  is  necessary  than  when  an  ordinary  high-wheeled 
wagon  is  used.  A  frame  of  a  size  to  hold  a  certain  number  of 
the  packages  being  used  shotild  be  built  onto  the  wagon  bed. 
When  the  distance  between  the  trees  will  allow  it,  the  frame 
should  be  made  wide;  if  the  trees  are  close  together,  the 
frame  must,  of  course,  be  made^  narrow.     It  is  important  that 


the  frame  be  strong  in  order  that  a  large  number  of  fruit  pack- 
ages can  be  hauled  at  a  load.  Bolster  springs,  a  form  of  which 
is  shown  in  Fig.  13  (6),  should  be  used  on  the  wagon  to  prevent 
jarring  of  the  fruit. 

4.     Receptacles  for  Orcliard  Transportation  of  Fruit. 

For  the  transporting  of  apples  from  the  orchard  to  the  packing 
shed,  crates  such  as  those  shown  in  Fig.  14  are  convenient.  The 
crates  shown  in  (a)  and  (b)  hold  1  bushel,  and  are  light,  easy  to 
handle,  and  durable.  Folding  crates,  such  as  those  shown  in  (c) 
and  (d),  also  are  sometimes  used  for  this  purpose.  Bushel  boxes 
with  a  slot  cut  in  each  end,  a  form  of  which  is  shown  in  (e) ,  are 
used  in  some  sections.  Some  growers  use  an  especially  con- 
structed box  that  holds  about  1|  bushels,  made  with  the  ends 
slightly  higher  than  the  side;  such  a  box  is  shown  in  (/). 


§7 


AND  MARKETING 


11 


5.  Methods  of  Picking. — Unless  the  crop  is  of  poor 
quality,  apples  should  be  picked  by  hand,  and  each  fruit,  as  it  is 
taken  from  the  tree,  laid,  not  dropped,  into  the  receptacle.    The 


Fig.  14 


dropping  of  an  apple  even  a  short  distance  will  cause  a  bruise 
and  thus  injure  the  fruit. 

Apples  should  always,  if  possible,  be  picked  with  the  stems  on, 
especially  those  that  are  to  be  kepL  for  winter  consumption;  if 
the  stem  is  pulled  out,  rot-producing  organisms  may  get  into 


12  APPLE  HARVESTING,  STORING,  §  7 

the  fruit  through  the  opening.  A  picker  should  exercise  care, 
when  picking  apples,  not  to  injure  the  fruit  spurs.  If  the  fruit 
is  ripe  enough  to  part  from  the  spur  readily  when  a  slight  twist 
is  given  to  it,  there  is  little  danger  of  injury,  provided  the  picker 
is  careful. 

Shaking  of  the  trees  should  be  resorted  to  only  when  the  apples 
are  to  be  used  for  evaporating  or  for  cider  making,  or  are  to  be 
sold  as  culls. 

6.  Time  for  Picking. — In  general,  it  may  be  said  that 
apples  are  ready  for  picking  as  soon  as  they  have  acquired  a  good 
color  and  will  part  from  the  spur  readily.  A  good  test  for  deter- 
mining whether  they  are  in  condition  to  be  picked  is  the  color 
of  the  seeds ;  an  apple  picked  just  as  che  seeds  turn  a  light  brown, 
but  before  they  become  dark  around  the  edges,  will  have  a  good 
flavor  and  will  keep  much  better  than  if  more  mature  when 
picked.  Still  it  may  not  always  be  good  management  to  pick 
the  fruit  when  the  seeds  and  the  color  indicate  that  it  is  ready 
for  picking.  Summer  apples  that  are  valuable  primarily  for 
cooking  are.  of  ten  picked  when  they  are  not  more  than  two- 
thirds  ripe,  and  winter  apples  that  are  to  be  exported  to  a  distant 
market,  say  from  the  United  States  or  Canada  to  Siberia,  are 
often,  of  necessity,  picked  rather  green  in  order  that  they  may 
be  shipped  early  to  avoid  danger  of  freezing  in  transit. 

Some  varieties  of  simimer  apples  ripen  very  unevenly  and 
consequently  it  is  necessary  to  make  pickings  at  intervals  of 
2  or  3  days  in  order  to  get  the  fruit  from  the  trees  in  the  best 
condition.  Other  varieties,  of  course,  ripen  more  evenly.  In  the 
case  of  fall  and  winter  varieties,  the  fruit  ripens  more  or  less 
imevenly.  Some  progressive  growers  practice  making  two  or 
three  pickings  and  find  that  it  pays.  Most  growers,  however, 
follow  the  custom  of  picking  all  of  the  apples  from  a  tree  at 
the  same  time. 

Varieties  differ  considerably  as  to  the  length  of  time  the  fruit 
will  hang  on  the  tree  after  becoming  mature.  The  fruit  of  some 
varieties,  if  allowed  to  become  very  ripe  before  being  picked, 
will  rot  at  the  core  in  storage.  The  Jonathan  is  an  example  of 
this  class.    The  grower  should,  therefore,  consider  the  variety 


§  7  AND  MARKETING  13 

when  deciding  how  mature  the  apples  should  become  before 
they  are  harvested. 

7.  Management  of  Pickers. — In  order  that  a  large  quan- 
tity of  fruit  may  be  harvested  in  a  given  time  and  that  the  fruit 
and  the  trees  may  be  injured  as  little  as  possible,  good  executive 
ability  is  needed  in  managing  apple  pickers.  Two  general  plans 
of  hiring  pickers  are  followed  by  growers,  namely,  hiring  by  the 
day  and  hiring  by  the  bushel.  Experience  shows  that  there  are 
advantages  and  disadvantages  in  both  methods.  As  some 
pickers  will  do  more  work  in  a  given  time  than  others,  there  is 
likely  to  be  dissatisfaction  if  all  receive  the  same  wages.  It  is 
possible,  in  a  way,  to  overcome  this  diffictdty  by  paying  different 
amounts  to  different  laborers,  but  this  also  may  cause  dissatisfac- 
tion and  will  require  tactful  management.  Under  some  condi- 
tions it  is  possible  to  arrange  the  pickers  into  different  groups 
and  pay  a  different  rate  for  each  group.  Mr.  A.  I.  Mason,  of 
Hood  River,  Oregon,  follows  this  plan  and  finds  it  practicable. 
He  employs  old  men  and  women  who  cannot  climb  ladders 
quickly  to  pick  the  fruit  from  the  lower  limbs,  these  pickers 
standing  on  the  ground  while  working.  The  second  group  is 
made  up  of  young  girls  who  pick  from  low,  light  step  ladders  that 
they  can  handle  easily.  The  third  group  is  composed  of  young 
men  who  pick  from  tall  ladders  and  remove  the  fruit  from  the 
tops  of  the  trees.  The  rate  of  wages  is,  of  course,  different  for 
each  group. 

If  conditions  are  such  thac  only  men  are  available  as  pickers, 
any  arrangement  whereby  different  wages  is  paid  to  different 
groups  would  be  very  likely  to  cause  dissatisfaction.  For  this 
reason,  growers  who  hire  by  the  day  generally  have  a  standard 
wage  scale,  and  when  a,  man  is  found  to  be  doing  poor  work  he 
is  discharged. 

An  advantage  of  hiring  by  the  bushel  is  that  it  is  usually  less 
expensive  than  hiring  by  the  day,  but  there  is,  however,  likely 
to  be  much  breaking  of  branches  and  spurs  and  bruising  of  the 
fruit.  Often  a  picker  is  found  who  picks  a  large  quantity  of 
fruit  in  a  day  but  is  very  careless  about  breaking  the  trees  and 
injuring  the  fruit.    Such  a  man  is  really  less  desirable  than  one 


14  APPLE  HARVESTING,  STORING,  §  7 

who  picks  an  average  quantity  of  fruit  but  is  careful  of  both 
fruit  and  tree. 

The  system  of  hiring  to  adopt  should,  of  course,  depend 
largely  on  conditions,  but  in  most  cases  the  wage  system  has 
proved  to  be  the  more  satisfactory. 


GRADING 

8.  Profits  in  Grading. — Proper  grading  of  the  fruit  is 
a  detail  of  the  apple  business  that  no  grower  should  neglect. 
In  fact,  it  is  difhciiLt  to  conduct  an  orchard  profitably  without 
careful  grading  of  the  product.  Apples  shoiild  be  graded  as  to 
quality,  size,  and  color.  It  is  poor  business  to  mix  apples  that 
will  rot  quickly  with  those  that  will  keep,  say,  for  several 
months,  because  the  infection  of  the  inferior  fruit  is  soon  carried 
to  the  sound  fruit.  It  is  poor  business  also  to  mix  fruit  of  dif- 
ferent sizes  together  in  the  packages  offered  for  sale,  for  such 
fruit  lacks  much  in  appearance  and  will  bring  less  on  the  market 
than  fruit  assorted  to  size.  For  box  packing,  which  is  described 
later,  it  is  imperative  that  apples  be  very  uniform  in  size.  Those 
to  be  placed  in  the  same  box  should  not  vary  more  than  about 
I  of  an  inch,  as  it  is  extremely  difficult  to  secure  a  uniform  pack 
if  the  variation  is  greater.  It  is  desirable  to  grade  apples  as 
to  color,  as  this  greatly  improves  the  appearance.  The  price 
received  for  a  package  of  fruit  of  uniform  color  is  usually  much 
greater  than  that  received  for  a  package  of  fruit  of  the  same 
quality  and  size  that  is  not  so  graded.  Even  in  the  case  of  fruit 
that  is  not  highly  colored,  careful  sorting  to  color  causes  it  to 
have  an  improved  appearance  and  consequently  to  sell  for  a 
higher  price. 

9.  Number  of  Grades. — In  many  sections  apples  are 
graded  into  three  grades,  which  are  known,  respectively,  as 
No.  1,  No.  2,  and  culls.  If,  however,  apples  are  marketed  by  an 
association,  or  if  the  individual  orchard  is  a  large  one,  or  if  the 
fruit  is  sold  on  a  local  market,  grades  better  than  No.  1,  known 
generally  as  jancy  and  choice,  are  likely  to  be  very  profitable. 

The  standard  grades  estabhshed  by  the  United  States  govern- 
ment for  apples  packed  in  barrels  and  shipped  or  offered  for 


§  7  AND  MARKETING  15 

shipment  in  interstate  or  foreign  commerce  or  sold  or  offered  for 
sale  in  the  District  of  Columbia  or  the  territories  of  the  United 
States  are  as  follows:  Minimtim  size  2|  inches,  2|  inches,  and 
2  inches. 

10.  Grade  Standards. — The  standards  established  by 
the  National  Apple  Shippers  Association  are  as  follows : 

Requirements  jor  No.  1  Apples:  The  standard  diameter  size 
for  No.  1  apples  of  such  varieties  as  Ben  Davis,  Willow  Twig, 
Baldwin,  Greening,  and  others  Idndred  in  size,  shall  be  not  less 
than  2|  inches.  The  standard  diameter  size  for  such  varieties 
as  Romanite,  Russet,  Winesap,  Jonathan,  Missouri  Pippin,  and 
other  varieties  kindred  in  size,  shall  be  not  less  than  2|  inches. 
In  order  to  be  graded  as  No.  1,  apples  must,  at  the  time  of  pack- 
ing, be  practically  free  from  worm  injury,  surface  defacement, 
and  broken  skin;  they  must  have  been  hand  picked  from  the 
tree,  and  must  be  of  a  bright,  normal  color  and  shapely  form. 

Requirements  for  No.  2  Apples:  In  order  to  be  graded  as 
No.  2,  apples  must  be  of  a  diameter  size  of  not  less  than  2\  inches. 
They  must  have  been  hand  picked  from  the  tree,  and  must  be 
free  from  broken  skin  and  bruises.  Apples  of  this  grade  must  be 
packed  with  as  much  care  as  No.  1  fruit. 

No  standards  for  apples  better  than  those  grading  as  No.  1 
have  been  established  by  the  National  Apple  Shippers  Associa- 
tion. The  standards  in  vogue  for  such  fruit  are  simply  personal 
standards  of  individual  growers  or  are  those  adopted  by  various 
fruit-growing  associations.  The  Hood  River  Apple  Growers 
Union,  of  the  Hood  River  district  in  Oregon,  has  adopted  the 
following  requirements  for  apples  shipped  as  fancy  and  choice: 

Fancy  Apples:  The  fancy  grade  consists  of  perfect  apples 
only.  They  must  be  free  from  worm  holes  and  stings;  from 
scale,  fungus,  scab,  rust,  or  any  other  disease;  and  from  all 
insect  pests,  decay,  and  injury.  They  must  be  free  from 
bruises  and  limb  rubs,  and  the  skin  around  the  stem  must  not 
be  broken.  All  apples  must  be  clean,  fully  matured,  and  not 
deformed,  and  must  have  a  healthy  color.  Spitzenburgs  must 
have  70  per  cent,  or  more  of  good  red  color.  All  red  apples 
must  be  of  good  color. 


16  APPLE  HARVESTING,  STORING,  §  7 

Choice  A  pples :  The  choice  grade  consi  sts  of  high-grade  apples 
that  are  a  little  below  fancy.  Apples  with  worm  holes  or  broken 
skin  are  not  acceptable  for  this  grade.  Limb  rubs  must  not  be 
larger  than  a  10-cent  piece.  Only  two  stings  will  be  allowed, 
and  these  are  allowed  only  where  neither  sting  has  seriously 
broken  the  skin  of  the  apple.  No  apples  wiU  be  accepted 
that  are  infected  with  San  Jose  scale  or  dry  rot,  or  that 
have  an  open  or  a  black  bruise.  Apples  having  fungus  spots 
larger  than  |-inch  in  diameter  are  not  acceptable  for  this 
grade. 

The  Yakima  Valley  Fruit  Growers  Association  has  adopted 
the  following  regulations  with  reference  to  the  grades  extra 
fancy,  fancy,  and  C: 

Extra  Fancy  Apples:  Extra  fancy  apples  are  perfect,  well- 
formed  apples  that  are  free  from  all  insect  pests,  worm  holes, 
stings,  scale,  scab,  sun  scald,  dry  rot,  water  core,  or  other 
defects.  Limb  rub,  skin  puncture,  bruises,  or  other  evidence  of 
rough  handling  shall  be  considered  defects.  All  apples  heavily 
coated  with  dirt  or  spray  must  be  cleaned.  All  the  apples  must 
be  well  matured  and  of  natural  color  characteristic  of  the  vari- 
ety. Spitzenburg,  Winesap,  Jonathan,  Arkansas  Black,  Gano, 
Lawver,  and  other  solid-red  varieties  must  have  75  per  cent, 
of  good  red  color.  Ben  Davis,  Rome  Beauty,  Baldwin,  Wagner, 
and  other  varieties  of  similar  color  must  be  50  per  cent.  red. 
Red-Cheek  Pippins  and  Winter  Bananas  must  have  a  red  cheek. 
Sizes  smaller  than  163  to  the  box  should  be  excluded  from  this 
grade  except  that  Winesaps  may  include  sizes  not  smaller  than 
225.  All  apples  of  the  extra  fancy  grade  must  be  carefully 
wrapped  and  properly  packed;  the  boxes  should  be  lined  with 
white  paper,  with  cardboard  on  top  and  bottom  only. 

Fancy  Apples:  Apples  of  the  fancy  grade  must  be  free  from 
all  insect  pests,  worm  holes,  stings,  scale,  sun  scald,  dry  rot, 
water  core,  or  other  defects.  Skin  puncture,  bruises  or  other 
evidence  of  rough  handling  shall  be  considered  defects.  Slight 
limb  rub  will  be  permitted.  All  apples  must  be  well  matured. 
Fruit  of  this  grade  must  be  carefully  wrapped  and  properly 
packed ;  the  boxes  should  be  lined  with  white  paper,  with  card- 
board on  top  and  bottom  only. 


§  7  '  AND  MARKETING  ,  17 

C  Grade  Apples:  Apples  of  the  C  grade  shall  be  merchantable 
apples  not  included  in  the  extra  fancy  or  fancy  grades.  The 
apples  must  be  free  from  all  insect  pests,  worm  holes,  and  scale, 
but  will  include  misshapen  apples  or  apples  having  a  limb  rub 
or  other  similar  defect.  Apples  of  this  grade  may  also  contain 
two  worm  stings  or  have  slight  bruises.  They  need  not  be 
wrapped  and  cardboard  need  not  be  used,  but  all  boxes  should 
be  lined. 

The  United  States  government  has  enacted  a  law  establishing 
standard  grades  for  apples  packed  in  barrels;  this  law  applies, 
of  course,  only  to  apples  that  are  shipped  or  offered  for  shipment 
in  interstate  or  foreign  commerce,  or  that  otherwise  are  subject 
to  federal  jurisdiction.  The  following  are  extracts  from  this 
law: 

Sec.  2.  That  the  standard  grades  for  apples  when  packed  in  barrels 
which  shall  be  shipped  or  delivered  for  shipment  in  interstate  or  foreign 
commerce,  or  which  shall  be  sold  or  offered  for  sale  within  the  District 
of  Columbia  or  the  territories  of  the  United  States  shall  be  as  follows: 
Apples  of  one  variety,  which  are  well-grown  specimens,  hand  picked,  of 
good  color  for  the  variety,  normal  shape,  practically  free  from  insect  and 
fungous  injury,  bruises,  and  other  defects,  except  such  as  are  necessarily 
caused  in  the  operation  of  packing,  or  apples  of  one  variety  which  are 
not  more  than  10  per  cent,  below  the  foregoing  specifications  shall  be 
"standard  grade,  minimum  size  2^  inches,"  if  the  minimum  size  of  the 
apples  is  2^  inches  in  transverse  diameter;  "standard  grade,  minimum 
size  2 J  inches,"  if  the  minimtim  size  of  the  apples  is  2\  inches  in  transverse 
diameter;  or  "standard  grade,  minimum  size  2  inches,"  if  the  minimum 
size  of  the  apples  is  2  inches  in  transverse  diameter. 

Sec.  3.  That  the  barrels  in  which  the  apples  are  packed  in  accordance 
with  the  provisions  of  this  Act  may  be  branded  in  accordance  with  sec- 
tion 2  of  this-  Act. 

11.  Methods  of  Marking  Grades. — In  the  United  States, 
the  various  grades  of  apples  are  generally  marked  No.  1,  No.  2, 
fancy,  choice,  C,  or  culls.  Unfortunately,  however,  No.  1  or  No.  2 
fruit  is  often  marked  fancy  or  choice.  No.  2  is  marked  No.  1,  or 
culls  are  marked  No.  2.  Such  practice  leads  to  confusion  and 
is  very  unsatisfactory,  especially  when  the  fruit  is  offered  on 
the  general  market  or  is  exported,  as  the  terms  are  likely  to 
mean  one  grade  in  the  case  of  one  grower's  fruit  and  another 
grade  in  the  case  of  that  of  another  grower. 


18  APPLE  HARVESTING,  STORING  §  7 

The  federal  government  has  enacted  a  law  regarding  the 
marking  of  apples  packed  in  barrels.  Following  are  extracts 
from  the  law: 

Sec.  5.  That  barrels  packed  with  apples  shall  be  deemed  to  be  mis- 
branded  within  the  meaning  of  this  Act — 

First.  If  the  barrel  bears  any  statement,  design,  or  device  indicating 
that  the  apples  contained  therein  are  standard  grade  and  the  apples  when 
packed  do  not  conform  to  the  requirements  prescribed  by  section  2  of 
this  Act. 

Second.  If  the  barrel  bears  any  statement,  design,  or  device  indicating 
that  the  apples  contained  therein  are  standard  grade  and  the  barrel  fails 
to  bear  also  a  statement  of  the  name  of  the  variety,  the  name  of  the  local- 
ity where  grown,  and  the  name  of  the  packer  or  the  person  by  whose 
authority  the  apples  were  packed  and  the  barrel  marked. 

Sec.  6.  That  any  person,  firm,  or  corporation,  or  association  who 
shall  knowingly  pack  or  cause  to  be  packed  apples  in  barrels  or  who  shall 
knowingly  sell  or  offer  for  sale  such  barrels  in  violation  of  the  provisions 
of  this  Act  shall  be  liable  to  a  penalty  of  one  dollar  and  costs  for  each 
such  barrel  so  sold  or  offered  for  sale,  to  be  recovered  at  the  suit  of  the 
United  States  in  any  court  of  the  United  States  having  jurisdiction. 

In  Canada,  definite  standard  names  have  been  designated  by- 
law for  each  grade  of  fruit.  This  avoids  confusion  and  has  been 
a  means  of  securing  a  good  reputation  in  England  for  Canadian- 
grown  apples.  Following  are  given  extracts  from  the  Canadian 
Fruit  Marks  Act  of  1901,  which  deal  with  this  phase  of  the  fruit 
business : 

4.  Every  person  who,  by  himself  or  through  the  agency  of  another 
person,  packs  fruit  in  a  closed  package,  intended  for  sale,  shall  cause  the 
package  to  be  marked  in  a  plain  and  indelible  manner,  before  it  is  taken 
from  the  premises  where  it  is  packed: 

(a)  with  the  initials  of  his  Christian  name,  and  his  full  surname  and 
address ; 

(&)  with  the  name  of  the  variety  or  varieties;  and 

(c)  with  a  designation  of  the  grade  of  fruit,  which  shall  include  one 
of  the  following  six  marks:  for  fruit  of  the  first  quality.  No.  1,  or  XXX; 
for  fruit  of  the  second  quality.  No.  2,  or  XX;  and  for  fruit  of  the  third 
quaUty,  No.  3,  or  X;  but  the  said  mark  may  be  accompanied  by  any  other 
designation  of  grade,  provided  that  designation  is  not  inconsistent  with, 
or  marked  more  conspicuously  than,  the  one  of  the  said  six  marks  which 
is  used  on  the  said  package. 

5.  No  person  shall  sell,  or  offer,  expose,  or  have  in  his  possession  for 
sale,  any  fruit  packed  in  a  closed  package  and  intended  for  sale,  unless 
such  package  is  marked  as  required  by  the  next  preceding  section. 


§  7  AND  MARKETING  19 

6.  No  person  shall  sell,  or  offer,  expose,  or  have  in  his  possession  for 
sale,  any  fruit  packed  in  a  closed  package,  upon  which  package  is  marked 
any  designation  which  represents  such  fruit  as  of  No.  1  or  XXX,  finest, 
best,  or  extra  good  quality,  unless  such  fruit  consists  of  well-grown  speci- 
mens of  one  variety,  sound,  of  nearly  uniform  size,  of  good  color  for  the 
variety,  of  normal  shape,  and  not  less  than  90  per  cent,  free  from  scab, 
worm  holes,  bruises,  and  other  defects,  and  properly  packed. 

7.  No  person  shall  sell,  or  offer,  expose,  or  have  in  his  possession  for 
sale,  any  fruit  packed  in  any  package  in  which  the  faced  or  shown  surface 
gives  a  false  representation  of  the  contents  of  such  package;  and  it  shall 
be  considered  a  false  representation  when  more  than  15  per  cent,  of  such 
fruit  is  substantially  smaller  in  size  than,  or  inferior  in  grade  to,  or  dif- 
ferent in  variety  from,  the  faced  or  shown  surface  of  such  package. 

8.  Every  person  who,  by  himself  or  through  the  agency  of  another 
person,  violates  any  of  the  provisions  of  this  Act  shall,  for  each  offense, 
upon  summary  conviction,  be  liable  to  a  fine  not  exceeding  one  dollar 
and  not  less  than  25  cents  for  each  package  which  is  packed,  sold,  offered, 
exposed,  or  had  in  possession  for  sale  contrary  to  the  provisions  of  this 
Act,  together  with  the  costs  of  prosecution;  and  in  default  of  payment  of 
such  fine  and  costs,  shall  be  Hable  to  imprisonment,  with  or  without  hard 
labor,  for  a  term  not  exceeding  one  month,  unless  such  fine  and  the  costs 
of  enforcing  it  are  sooner  paid. 

9.  Whenever  any  fruit  in  any  package  is  found  to  be  so  packed  that 
the  faced,  or  shown,  surface  gives  a  false  representation  of  the  contents 
of  the  package,  any  inspector  charged  with  the  enforcement  of  this  Act 
may  mark  the  words  "falsely  packed"  in  a  plain  and  indelible  manner 
on  the  package. 

(2)  Whenever  any  fruit  packed  in  a  closed  package  is  found  to  be 
falsely  marked,  the  said  inspector  may  efface  such  false  marks  and  mark 
the  words  "falsely  packed"  in  a  plain  and  indelible  manner  on  the  package. 

(3)  The  inspector  shall  give  notice,  by  letter  or  telegram,  to  the  packer 
whose  name  is  marked  on  the  package,  before  he  marks  the  words  "falsely 
packed"  or  "falsely  marked"  on  the  package. 

10.  Every  person  who  not  being  an  inspector  wilfully  alters,  effaces 
or  obliterates  wholly  or  partially,  or  causes  to  be  altered,  effaced  or  oblit- 
erated, any  marks  on  any  package  which  has  undergone  inspection  shall 
incur  a  penalty  of  forty  dollars. 

The  marking  of  packages  of  apples  with  various  trade  names 
is  often  practiced,  and  if  used  in  addition  to  an  honest  mark  of 
the  grade  such  marking  is  often  advantageous  to  a  grower  who 
sells  his  fruit  on  a  local  market  or  to  a  special  trade,  for  the  name 
may  become  an  important  factor  in  advertising  the  fruit  from 
a  particular  orchard.  In  fact,  it  is  likely  to  have  much  the  effect 
of  labels  such  as  are  described  later. 


20 


APPLE  HARVESTING,  STORING, 


§7 


12.  Method  of  Grading. — The  grading  of  apples  to  size 
can  be  done  by  means  of  machines  that  are  on  the  market  or 
it  can  be  done  by  hand.  A  convenient  plan,  when  grading  by 
hand,  is  to  have  a  table  arranged  with  receptacles  for  the  fruit. 


Fig.  15 


as  shown  in  Fig.  15.  A  grading  board,  such  as  is  illustrated  in 
Fig.  16,  will  be  found  helpful,  especially  to  an  inexperienced 
grader.  As  shown  in  the  illustration,  this  board  has  five 
holes  of  various  dimensions.     The  board  should  be  placed  so 


Fig.  16 


that  apples  can  be  dropped  through  the  holes  quickly.  After 
a  little  experience  in  grading  fruit  has  been  acquired,  a  grader 
will  find  that  a  grading  board  is  not  needed,  as  it  will  be  possible 
for  him  to  judge  the  size  of  an  apple  simply  by  looking  at  it. 


AND  MARKETING  21 


PACKING 

13.  Packing  House. — Some  kind  of  a  packing  house  or 
shed  is  almost  a  necessity  if  a  large  number  of  apples  are  to  be 
packed.  Growers  sometimes  pack  the  fruit  in  the  open  air,  but, 
in  this  case,  rainy  or  cold  weather  is  likely  to  interfere  with 
operations  just  at  the  height  of  the  harvesting  season.  The 
packing  house  need  not  be  an  expensive  affair,  but  it  should  be 
well  lighted  and  be  a  comfortable  place  in  which  to  work.  The 
interior  should  be  arranged  conveniently  with  sorting  and 
packing  tables  that  will  facilitate  rapid  and  careful  handhng 
of  the  fruit. 

14.  Barrels  for  Apples. — In  America,  the  barrel  is  still 
used  more  than  any  other  package  for  apples,  and  market  quota- 
tions are  generally  given  in  terms  of  this  package.  In  New  York, 
the  largest  apple-producing  state,  the  law  specifies  the  following 
with  reference  to  barrels : 

Barrels  of  Apples,  Quinces,  Pears,  and  Potatoes:  A  barrel  of  pears, 
quinces,  or  potatoes  shall  represent  a  quantity  equal  to  100  quarts  of  grain 
or  dry  measure.  A  barrel  of  apples  shall  be  of  the  following  dimensions: 
head  diameter,  17|- inches;  length  of  stave,  28^  inches;  bulge,  not  less  than 
64  inches  outside  measurements. 

The  United  States  government  has  enacted  a  law  establishing 
a  standard  barrel  for  apples.  Following  are  extracts  from  the 
la-v\r: 

Be  it  enacted  by  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives  of  the  United 
States  of  America  in  Congress  assembled,  That  the  standard  barrel  for 
apples  shall  be  of  the  following  dimensions  when  measured  without  dis- 
tension of  its  parts:  Length  of  stave,  28^  inches;  diameter  of  head, 
17 J  inches;  distance  between  heads,  26  inches;  circumference  of  bulge, 
64  inches,  outside  measurement;  representing  as  nearly  as  possible  7,056 
cubic  inches:  Provided,  That  steel  barrels  containing  the  interior  dimen- 
sions provided  for  in  this  section  shah  be  construed  as  a  compliance 
therewith. 

Sec.  4.  That  all  barrels  packed  with  apples  shall  be  deemed  to  be 
below  standard  if  the  barrel  bears  any  statement,  design,  or  device  indi- 
cating that  the  barrel  is  a  standard  barrel  of  apples,  as  herein  defined, 
and  the  capacity  of  the  barrel  is  less  than  the  capacity  prescribed  by 
section  1  of  this  Act,  unless  the  barrel  shall  be  plainly  marked  on  end 

248—24 


22 


APPLE  HARVESTING,  STORING, 


§7 


and  side  with  the  word  or  figures  showing  the  fractional  relation  which 
the  actual  capacity  of  the  barrel  bears  to  the  capacity  prescribed  by  sec- 
tion 1  of  this  Act.  The  marking  required  by  this  paragraph  shall  be 
in  block  letters  of  size  not  less  than  seventy-two  point  1-inch  Gothic. 

In  Canada,  the  law  makes  the  following  specification: 

All  apples  packed  in  Canada  for  export  for  sale  by  the  barrel  in  closed 
barrels  shall  be  packed  in  good  and  strong  barrels  of  seasoned  wood, 
having  dimensions  not  less  than  the  following:  26 J  inches  between  the 
heads,  inside  measure,  and  a  head  diameter  of  17  inches,  and  a  middle 
diameter  of  18^  inches,  representing,  as  nearly  as  possible,  96  quarts. 
When  apples,  pears,  or  quinces  are  sold  by  the  barrel,  as  a  measure  of 
capacity,  such  barrel  shaU  not  be  of  lesser  dimensions  than  those  specified 
in  this  section. 

A  barrel  usually  has  two  hoops  at  each  end  and  either  one  or 
two  half  way  between  each  end  and  the  bulge.  In  Fig.  17  are 
shown  the  two  types.  Barrel  heads  can  be  had  in  from  two  to 
four  pieces.    Often  the  heads  can  be  procured  wi th  the  parts  held 

together  by  means  of 
wire  staples.  A  head 
of  this  type  is  very 
convenient  to  handle. 
Large  growers  or 
associations  often 
buy  sawed-out  mate- 
rial for  barrels  and 
put  the  parts  to- 
gether on  their  own 
premises.  This  prac- 
tice saves  freight 
charges  and  enables 
the  grower  to  make  use  of  labor  in  seasons  when  orchard  work 
is  not  pressing.  Barrels  used  for  apples  should  always  be  new 
and  clean ;  the  practice  of  using  second-hand  or  soiled  barrels 
is  unsatisfactory,  and  is  often  the  means  of  losing  sales. 

15.  Boxes  for  Apples. — ^The  bushel  apple  box,  two  forms 
of  which  are  shown  in  Fig.  18,  is  coming  into  wide  use,  especially 
for  the  best  grades  of  apples.  Fancy  apples  that  have  been  care- 
fully graded,  for  example,  are  often  handled  at  a  better  profit 


Fig.  17 


§7 


AND  MARKETING 


23 


in  boxes  than  in  barrels.  The  standard-sized  box  in  Canada  is 
10  in.  X  11  in.  X  20  in.,  inside  measurement.  In  the  United 
States,  some  growers  use  a  box  10  in.  X  11  in.  X  20  in.,  and 
others  use  one  that  is  lOJ  in.  X  11|  in.  X  18  in. ;  these  are  the 
two  forms  illustrated. 
In  the  northern  part 
of  the  United  States, 
thel0i"Xlli"X18" 
box  is  often  termed 
by  growers  the  stand- 
ard box,  and  the 
10"  X 11"  X  20"  box, 
the  special  box. 

In  the  making  of 
apple  boxes,  f-inch 
material  is  used  for 
the  ends,  f-inch  mate- 
rial for  the  sides,  and 
i-inch  m_aterial  for  the 
top  and  the  bottom.  The  sides  need  to  be  thick  enough  not  to 
bulge,  but  the  top  and  bottom  should  bulge  easily,  but  not  break. 
The  ends  need  to  be  thick  enough  to  hold  the  nails  well  and  to 


Fig.  18 


Fig.  19 


give  strength  to  the  box.  Cleats  about  f-inch  wide  are  usually 
used  across  each  end  of  the  top  and  bottom.  Spruce  is  a  desir- 
able wood  for  apple  boxes ;  it  is  white,  neat  in  appearance,  and 


24  APPLE  HARVESTING,  STORING,  §  7 

does  not  split  easily  when  nailed.  The  lumber  for  boxes  is  prac- 
tically always  bought  sawed  to  the  right  dimension,  the  boxes 
being  made  up  at  the  orchard.  This  buying  of  the  material 
knocked  down  reduces  expense. 

In  nailing  a  box,  four  4-penny  nails  are  generally  used  for  each 
end  of  each  side,  and  four  for  each  end  of  the  top  and  the  bottom, 
the  box  thus  requiring  thirty-two  nails.  When  a  box  is  being 
put  together  it  is  well  to  have  some  kind  of  a  form  to  hold  the 
ends  in  place  while  the  nails  are  being  started.  In  Fig.  19  is 
shown  a  bench  with  a  form  for  this  purpose.  The  two  ends  for 
the  box  are  placed  in  the  grooves  on  the  bench,  and  two  pieces 
of  the  side  nailed  to  them.  The  ends  and  the  side  are  then 
turned  and  the  other  side  and  bottom  are  nailed  in   place. 

A  good  workman  can  put 
together  from  one  hundred  to 
two  hundred  boxes  a  day. 

16.  Busliel  Baskets  for 
Apples. — ^For  a  local  market, 
the  bushel  stave  basket,  one  of 
which  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  20, 
has  been  found  to  be  fairly 
satisfactory.  These  baskets 
are  light,  diirable,  inexpensive, 
and  easy  to  pack  and  to 
handle.  For  use  on  a  general 
wholesale  market  they  are  not  satisfactory,  however,  because 
the  trade  is  not  accustomed  to  purchasing  apples  put  up  in 
this  way.  A  further  objection  to  their  use  is  the  fact  that  they 
cannot  be  piled  more  than  four  or  five  high  without  injury  to 
the  fruit  in  the  bottom  baskets. 

17.  Packing  of  Apples  in  Barrels. — The  first  operation 
in  packing  a  barrel  of  apples  is  to  fasten  securely  the  end  that  is 
to  be  the  top  by  driving  four  5-penny  nails  into  each  piece  of  the 
head,  as  shown  in  Fig.  21.  The  nails  should  be  driven  obliquely 
through  the  upper  hoop,  the  end  of  the  stave,  and  into  the  wood 
of  the  head.  Two  liners — small,  flexible  strips  of  wood — are 
then  nailed  across  the  ends  of  the  pieces  of  the  head,  the  liners 


Fig.  20 


§7 


AND  MARKETING 


25 


following  the  curve  of  the  barrel.  If  the  liners  are  not  flexible 
enough  to  fit  readily  to  this  curve,  they  should  be  placed  in  water 
for  an  hour  or  so  before  being  used.  For  the  liners  3-penny  nails 
should  be  used,  the  nails  being  clinched  on  the  outside  of  the 
barrel. 

The  next  step  is  to  nail  the  hoops — except  the  two  on  the  end 
that  will  be  uppermost  while  the  barrel  is  being  filled — ^to  the 
staves  of  the  barrel  by  driving  two  3-penny  nails  through  each 
hoop,  one  on  each  side  of  the  barrel,  as  shown  in  Fig.  22.    These 


T*T^ 


Fig.  21 


Fig.  22 


nails  will  go  through  the  staves  and,  in  order  to  prevent  injury 
to  the  fruit,  must  be  clinched  later. 

The  barrel  is  next  reversed  so  that  the  end  formerly  at  the 
top  rests  on  the  floor,  the  two  upper  hoops  are  loosened,  the  head 
is  removed,  and  the  nails  that  have  been  driven  through  the 
hoops  are  clinched.  A  circle  of  paper  the  size  of  the  end  is  then 
placed  in  the  bottom  of  the  barrel. 

The  barrel  is  now  ready  for  filling,  and  in  order  that  the  pack- 
age, when  opened,  will  make  a  good  appearance,  the  apples  that 
are  placed  in  what  is  now  the  bottom  are  arranged  in  regular 
order,  or  faced.  Fig.  23  shows  the  appearance  of  a  well-faced 
barrel  after  being  opened  at  the  top.    The  face  should  be  made 


26 


APPLE  HARVESTING,  STORING, 


up  of  apples  that  are  about  an  average  of  those  that  go  into  the 
package. 

It  is  unwise  as  well  as  dishonest  to  use  better  apples  for  the 
face  than  for  the  interior,  as  experienced  buyers  are  not  usually 
misled  by  such  practices.     The  apples  of  the  face  are  placed 
stem  end  down  for  two  reasons:  first,  the  face  will  be  more 
attractive,  and,  second,  the  stem  end  usually  presents  a  broader 
surface  to  come  in  contact  with  the  head,  and  thus  the  skin  of 
the  apples  is  less  likely  to  be  bruised  when  the  barrels  are  han- 
dled.   In  arranging  the  face,  the  packer  secures  several  apples  of 
uniform  size  and  color  and  places  them  around  the  outer  edge  of 
what  is  now  the  bottom  of  the  barrel;  next  he  lays  another  circle 
of  fruit  just  inside  of  the  first  one  and  so  on  until  the  face  is 
completed;  usually  one  apple  is  placed  in  the  center,  this  com- 
pleting the  layer.     It  is  impor- 
tant that  the  apples  be  fitted  in 
firmly,  but  not  so  firmly  that  the 
layer  will  tend  to  bulge  badly, 
because  in  this  case  after  the 
barrel  is  packed  some  of  them 
may  turn  over  on  the  side,  or 
buckle,  as  fruit  men  say,  and  the 
barrel  will  show  a  disarranged 
face  when  opened. 
Packers  generally  place  a  second  layer  in  the  barrel  by  hand. 
Some  make  a  practice  of  arranging  this  layer  in  the  same  manner 
as  the  first  and  thus  really  make  a  double  face;  others  simply 
place  the  apples  cheek  downwards  at  the  joints  made  where  tliree 
apples  of  the  face  come  together.    After  the  placing  of  the  second 
layer  the  barrel  is  ready  for  further  filling.    If  the  fruit  has  been 
sorted  into  baskets,  or  pails,  these  should  be  lowered  one  at  a 
time  into  the  barrel  and  the  fndt  emptied.    In  no  case  should  the 
apples  be  dropped  from  a  height  of  more  than  a  few  inches.  Some 
oichardists,  when  packing  apples,  make  use  of  a  table  like  the  one 
illustrated  in  Fig.  24.    The  fruit  is  allowed  to  run  into  the  barrel 
from  the  table,  the  lower  end  being  removable.     Growers  who 
use  this  table  try  to  avoid  bruising  of  the  fruit  by  having  a 
length  of  burlap  extend  into  the  barrel;  they  claim  that  the 


Fig.  23 


AND  MARKETING 


27 


apples,  in  falling  on  the  burlap,  will  not  be  bruised.  Such  prac- 
tice is  not  to  be  recommended,  for  no  matter  how  careful  the 
packer  may  be,  the  frmt  is  likely  to  be  bruised.  The  careful 
emptying  of  a  pail  or  basket  of  fruit  will  require  a  little  more 


Fig.  24 

time  than  rolling  the  apples  from  a  table  of  this  kind,  but 
fewer  apples  will  be  injured. 

When  the  barrel  is  about  one-third  full  it  should  be  racked, 
that  is,  jarred  slightly  in  order  that  the  fruit  will  settle.  This 
is  accomplished  by  rocking  the  barrel  back  and  forth,  being 
careful  not  to  allow  the  edge  to  get  more  than  about  2  or  3  inches 
off  the  floor.  The  filling  is  then  continued  until  the  barrel  is 
about  two-thirds  full,  when  it  is  again  racked.  Following  this 
racldng,  it  is  filled  to  within  an  inch  or  two  of  the  chime,  the 
exact  distance  depending  on  the  size  of  the  apples  and  on  the 
variety.  A  follower,  one  of  which  is  shown  in  Fig.  25,  is  now 
placed  on  the  apples  and  held  there 
and  the  barrel  racked  for  the  last  time. 
The  follower  is  used  to  hold  the  apples  in 
place  and  level  the  fruit  preparatory  to 
arranging  the  last  apples  in  the  barrel.  ^i^-  25 

This  accessory  is  easily  constructed,  being  simply  two  or  three 
boards  nailed  together  and  cut  to  fit  the  shape  of  the  barrel ;  it  is 
provided  with  a  handle  and  is  padded  with  burlap  or  other  thick 
cloth.  The  arranging  of  the  last  apples  in  the  barrel  is  knowTi 
as  tailing,  and  is  one  of  the  most  difficult  operations  of  apple 


28 


APPLE  HARVESTING.  STORING, 


§7 


barreling.  The  apples  are  placed  with  stems  up  and  are  arranged 
in  regular  order,  much  the  same  as  in  the  face,  although,  as  a  rule, 
they  are  not  placed  in  concentric  circles,  but  are  merely  arranged 
in  a  level  layer.  The  main  object  of  tailing  is  to  secure  an  even 
surface  in  order  that  the  head,  when  placed  in  position,  will  hold 
all  the  apples  in  the  barrel  snug  and  firm.  The  top  of  this  last 
layer  of  apples  should  extend  to,  or,  in  some  cases,  slightly  above 
the  ends  of  the  staves.  When  the  head  is  put  on  the  barrel  the 
apples  will  be  forced  down  into  the  barrel,  but  this  is  necessary, 
or  otherwise  the  barrel  will  become  slack,  as  fruitmen  say,  and 
much  fruit  will  be  injured  by  rolling  about  in  the  barrel.    Inex- 


(a) 


(b) 


Fig.  26 


perienced  packers  often  fail  to  have  the  apples  far  enough  above 
where  the  head  will  be  placed.  It  is  surprising  how  much  pres- 
sure a  barrel  of  apples  will  stand  without  much  injury  to  the 
fruit.  Thick-skinned  apples  like  Ben  Davis  and  Gano  will  stand 
more  pressure  without  injury  than  thin-skinned  apples  like 
Northern  Spy  and  Mcintosh,  but  even  thin-skinned  varieties 
must  be  pressed  down  sufficiently  to  avoid  slackness  in  the 
barrels.  Above  the  last  layer  is  generally  placed  a  circle  of 
paper  similar  to  that  used  in  the  face  end. 

After  the  tailing  is  finished,  the  barrel  is  headed.    For  this 
work,  use  is  made  of  what  is  known  as  a  barrel  press,  two  fornis 


§  7  AND  MARKETING  .  29 

of  which  are  shown  in  Fig.  26,  the  one  shown  in  (a)  being  a  screw 
press,  and  the  one  in  (b)  a  lever  press.  Both  forms  are  in  com- 
mon use  among  packers,  some  preferring  one  form  and  some 
the  other. 

When  a  barrel  is  to  be  headed  the  upper  hoop  is  removed,  the 
one  just  below  it  is  loosened  by  being  driven  upwards,  the  head 
is  laid  in  place  on  the  apples,  and  the  lower  part  of  the  press  is 
caught  under  the  bottom  of  the  barrel.  But  before  the  apples 
are  pressed  into  the  barrel,  the  top  hoop  is  slipped  onto  the 
barrel  so  that  it  can  be  driven  downwards  to  tighten 
the  staves  before  the  press  is  removed.  When  all  of 
these  details  have  been  arranged  pressure  is  exerted 
and  the  head  is  forced  down  to  the  chime.  The  hoops 
are  then  driven  downwards  to  their  proper  position 
and  the  top  is  nailed  and  liners  put  in  place,  as  was 
done  in  the  case  of  the  other  end.  To  avoid  splitting 
the  hoops  when  driving  them  to  place,  it  is  well  to 
make  use  of  a  hoop  follower,  a  piece  of  hard  wood 
shaped  as  shown  in  Fig.  27.  After  being  headed  the  ^^'^'  ^"^ 
barrel  is  turned  over  and  the  grade  marked  on  the  top.  It  is 
then  laid  on  its  side,  as  there  is  less  likelihood  of  it  becoming 
slack  than  if  left  on  end. 

18.  Packing  of  Apples  in  Boxes. — Of  recent  years,  the 
packing  of  apples  in  bushel  boxes  has  come  into  vogue  in  many 
parts  of  the  United  States  and  Canada.  This  style  of  package  is 
especially  desirable  for  choice  and  fancy  fruit,  well-packed  boxes 
of  these  grades  often  bringing  excellent  prices. 

One  of  the  first  requisites  for  good  and  rapid  box  packing  is  a 
properly  constructed  packing  table.  Fig.  28  shows  an  approved 
form  of  table  that  will  hold  three  or  four  bushels  of  apples  and 
accommodate  two  packers.  It  is  simply  a  burlap-covered  frame 
supported  by  legs  and  having  boards  arranged  at  the  ends  for 
supporting  the  boxes  to  be  packed.  The  dimensions  shown  in  the 
illustrations  can,  of  course,  be  varied  to  suit  the  convenience  of 
the  packers.  Two  layers  of  burlap  are  used  on  the  frame,  the 
bottom  one  being  nailed  and  the  top  one  merely  hooked  in  place 
so  that  it  can  be  removed  easily  to  enable  the  packer  to  shake  off 


30 


APPLE  HARVESTING,  STORING, 


§7 


any  leaves  and  dirt  that  accumulate.    A  piece  of  garden  hose  is 
nailed  around  the  top  edge  of  the  table  to  prevent  bruising  of  the 


Fig.  28 

fruit.    When  being  packed,  the  boxes  are  tilted  as  shown  in  the 
illustration  and  are  prevented  from  slipping  by  the  strip  a. 

The  hod  h  is  for  hold- 
ing sheets  of  wrap- 
ping paper,  the  use 
of  which  is  discussed 
later.  The  hod,  which 
is  removable,  is  held 
in  place  by  two  right- 
angled  hooks  c  and  a 
bracket  that  supports 
it  against  the  side  of 
the  box. 

The  sides,  bottom, 
and  top  of  apple  boxes 
are  generally  lined 
with  white  paper. 
Newspaper  stock  is 
extensively  used  for 
this  purpose,  although  in  some  localities  the  growers  prefer  a 
glazed  paper.     The  sheets  of  paper  are  cut  so  that  they  are 


Fig.  29 


§  7  AND  MARKETING  31 

slightly  narrower  than  the  length  of  the  box.  Two  are  used  for 
a  box,  each  sheet  covering  a  little  more  than  half  the  bottom,  all 
of  the  side,  and  about  half  of  the  top.  To  avoid  tearing  of  the 
sheet  where  the  bottom  of  the  box  is  joined  to  the  side  when 
the  bottom  bulges  after  the  top  is  nailed,  the  sheets  are  plaited 
at  the  place  where  they  will  come  in  contact  with  this  part  of 
the  box.  While  the  box  is  being  filled,  the  paper  that  will 
cover  the  top  hangs  over  the  sides.  Fig.  29  shows  a  box  lined 
and  ready  for  packing. 

At  the  top  and  bottom  of  the  boxes,  and  sometimes  between 
the  layers  of  fruit,  sheets  of  unglazed  paper  or  cardboard  are 
placed.  This  gives  a  neat  appearance  to  the  pack,  and  is  useful 
in  taking  up  inequalities  between  the  layers,  and  in  preventing 
rubbing  of  the  fruit  while  the  cover  is  being  nailed. 

Box-packed  apples  are  generally  wiped  before  being  placed  in 
the  package,  especially  if  the  fruit  was  sprayed  late  in  the  season 
with  a  spray  mixture  containing  lime.  But  even  if  no  spray 
that  will  whiten  the  fruit  has  been  used,  it  is  probably  a  good 
plan,  on  account  of  the  improved  appearance  of  the  fruit,  to  wipe 
off  the  dust.  A  pair  of  cheap  cotton  gloves  is  better  for  wiping 
apples  than  a  rag,  as  the  operation  is  done  more  quickly  and  the 
gloves  protect  the  hands  from  the  cold.  The  Hood  River  Apple 
Growers  Union  instructs  its  members  as  to  the  wiping  of  fruit 
as  follows :  Wipe  the  apples  just  enough  to  make  them  clean  and 
get  off  the  spray.    Do  not  polish  them. 

Growers  find,  as  a  rule,  that  in  box  packing  it  pays  to  wrap 
each  apple  in  paper.  Wrapped  fruit  is  easier  to  pack  than 
unwrapped,  it  goes  into  the  market  looking  fresher,  there  is  no 
opportunity  for  decay  to  spread  from  one  apple  to  another,  and 
if  the  packing  is  well  done  there  is  little  chance  of  the  package 
becoming  slack.  On  the  other  hand,  wrapped  fruit  requires 
slightly  more  time  for  packing,  there  is  a  cost  of  2  or  3  cents  a 
box  for  paper,  and  when  the  box  comes  to  market  the  fruit 
cannot  be  seen  at  a  glance  as  can  unwrapped  fruit. 

Newspaper  stock  is  good  paper  for  wrapping  fruit.  The  size 
of  sheets  to  use  will  depend,  of  course,  on  the  size  of  the  apples, 
the  average  sizes  of  sheets  being  8  in.  X  10  in.,  10  in.  X  10  in., 
and  10  in.  X  12  in. 


32  APPLE  HARVESTING,  STORING,  §  7 

Not  much  time  is  required  to  wrap  an  apple.  The  method  is 
as  follows:  A  sheet  of  paper  is  grasped  from  the  holder  on  the 
pacldng  table  with  one  hand,  and  an  apple  from  the  table  with 
the  other  hand,  and  the  two  brought  together  over  the  box,  and 
as  the  apple  is  placed  in  the  box,  the  paper  is  folded  around  the 
fruit,  its  ends  being  kept  underneath  by  the  weight  of  the  apple. 
In  order  that  one  sheet  of  paper  may  be  grasped  at  a  time 
packers  find  it  convenient  to  wear  a  rubber  stole  on  the  thumb 
or  first  finger  of  the  left  hand. 

The  apples  are  placed  in  the  box  in  layers,  and  for  this  reason 
it  is  imperative  that  they  be  uniform  in  size.  The  arrange- 
ment of  the  layers  may 
be  in  one  of  three  ways 
known,  respectively,  as 
the  straight,  the  diago- 
nal, and  the  offset  pack. 

19.    In  the  straiglit 

pack,  the  apples  are 
placed  in  straight  rows 
lengthwise  and  cross- 
wise of  the  box,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  30.  This 
is  one  of  the  most  dif- 
ficult packs  to  make, 
especially  if  the  fruit  is 
not  graded  accurately 
to  size.  Each  layer  in 
the  box  is  the  exact  duplicate  of  each  other  layer,  containing 
the  same  number  of  apples  placed  directly  over  those  of  the 
preceding  layer.  Only  apples  of  approximately  the  same  size 
can  be  packed  in  this  way,  as  otherwise  the  rows  will  not 
come  out  even. 

Packs  of  this  land  may  be  arranged  in  5,  4,  or  3  tiers,  the 
arrangement  depending  on  the  size  of  the  fruit.  These  packs  are 
known,  respectively,  as  5-tier,  4-tier,  and  3-tier  packs.  In  a 
5-tier  pack  there  will  generally  be  8  cross-rows,  or  40  apples  to 
the  layer,  and  5  layers  to  the  box,  thus  making  200  apples  to  the 


Fig.  30 


AND  MARKETING 


33 


box.  A  4-tier  pack  has,  as  a  rule,  either  6,  7,  or  8  cross-rows,  or 
24,  28,  or  32  apples  to  the  layer,  and  4  layers  to  the  box,  making 
96,  112,  or  128  apples  to  the  package.  In  a  3-tier  pack,  there 
are  generally  either  5  or  6  cross-rows,  or  15  or  18  apples  tothe 
layer,  and  3  layers  to  the  box,  making  45  or  54  apples  to  the 
package. 

The  straight  pack  presents  a  neat  appearance,  but  there  is 
likely  to  be  considerable  bruising  of  the  fruit,  as  each  apple  is 
directly  above  or  below  some  other  apple. 


Fig.  31 

20.  In  a  diagonal  pack,  so  named  from  the  diagonal 
course  of  the  rows,  the  apples  are  arranged  as  fehown  in  Fig.  31. 
Packers  usually  prefer  this  pack  to  the  straight  pack  because 
it  is  easier  to  make  and  the  apples  can  be  packed  with  a  little  less 
careful  grading.  In  (a)  is  shown  what  is  called  a  3-2,  or  4|-tier, 
pack.  The  3-2  has  reference  to  the  number  of  apples  in  the 
cross-rows,  there  being  three  in  the  first  row,  two  in  the  second, 
and  so  on;  the  expression  4|-tier  is  derived  from  the  fact  that 
there  are  three  complete  and  two  incomplete  tiers,  which,  if 
placed  end  to  end,  would  make  4|  solid  tiers.  The  number  of 
apples  in  a  4|-tier  box  ranges  from  150  to  200.    In  (b)  is  shown 


34 


APPLE  HARVESTING,  STORING, 


what  is  known  as  a  2-2  diagonal,  or  a  3|-tier,  pack.    As  a  rule, 
there  are  64,  72,  or  80  apples  in  a  pack  of  this  kind. 

To  start  a  3-2  diagonal  pack,  an  apple  is  placed  in  each  comer 
of  one  end  of  the  box  and  a  third  midway  between  them.  There 
will  thus  be  left  two  open  spaces,  neither  of  them  as  wide  as  the 
diameter  of  one  of  the  apples.  These  spaces  will,  however,  allow 
the  two  apples  of  the  second  row  to  partly  slip  between  those 

TABLE  I 
DATA   CONCERNING    STRAIGHT   AND   DIAGONAL    BOX    PACKS 


No. 
of  Apples 
per  Box 

Tier 

Pack 

No. 
of  Apples 
per  Tier 

No. 

of 

Layers 

Size  of  Box  Used 

45 
54 
63 

3 
3 
3 

Straight 
Straight 
Straight 

5 
6 

7 

3 
3 
3 

10|"XlirX18" 
10  "Xll  "X20" 
10  "Xll  "X20" 

64 

31 

2-2  Diagonal 

4-4 

4 

10i"Xlirxl8" 

72 

31 

2-2  Diagonal 

4-5 

4 

iorxiirxi8" 

80 

3f 

2-2  Diagonal 

5-5 

4 

lorxiirxis" 

88 

31 

2-2  Diagonal 

5-6 

4 

10rXlU"Xl8" 

96 

31 

2-2  Diagonal 

6-6 

4 

10  "Xll  "X20" 

104 

31 

2-2  Diagonal 

6-7 

4 

10  "Xll  "X20" 

112 

31 

2-2  Diagonal 

7-7 

4 

10  "Xll  "X20" 

120 

31 

2-2  Diagonal 

7-8 

4 

10  "Xll  "X20" 

128 

4 

Straight 

8 

4 

10  "Xll  "X20" 

144 

4 

Straight 

9 

4 

10  "Xll  "X20" 

150 

4-i 

3-2  Diagonal 

6 

5 

lov'xiirxis" 

163 

^2 

3-2  Diagonal 

6-7 

■5 

10i"Xll|"Xl8" 

175 

41 

^2 

3-2  Diagonal 

7-7 

5 

lorxiirxis" 

ISS 

4| 

3-2  Diagonal 

7-8 

5 

10  "Xll  "X20" 

200 

^ 

3-2  Diagonal 

8-8 

5 

10  "Xll  "X20" 

of  the  first  row.  The  second  row  has  three  open  spaces,  conse- 
quently there  will  be  three  apples  in  the  next  row;  in  the  next 
there  will  be  two,  and  in  the  next  three,  and  so  on  until  the  other 
end  of  the  box  is  reached.  Sometimes  the  last  row  will  contain 
two  apples  and  sometimes  three,  depending  on  the  size  and  the 
shape  of  the  fruit.  In  starting  the  second  layer  of  a  3-2  pack, 
two  apples  instead  of  three  are  placed  for  the  first  row;  these  two 
apples  will  fit  in  the  two  spaces  left  by  the  three  apples  of  the 
corresponding  row  in  the  first  layer.    The  apples  of  the  second 


§7 


AND  MARKETING 


35 


layer  tend  to  fill  up  the  vacant  spaces  of  the  first  layer.  The 
third  layer  is  begun  with  three  apples,  and  the  fourth  with  two ; 
thus  the  odd-numbered  layers  are  alike,  and  the  even-numbered 
ones  are  alike. 

The  2-2  diagonal  pack  is  used  for  apples  that  are  too  large 
for  a  3-2  pack.  It  is  started  by  placing  an  apple  in  one  comer 
of  the  box  and  a  second  one  midway  between  this  first  apple 
land  the  other  side.  The  two  apples  of  the  second  row  are  then 
placed  to  fit  into  the  open  spaces  thus  left ;  the  third  row  is  then 
placed  like  the  first  one,  and  the  fourth,  like  the  second,  and  so 
on  until  the  layer  is  finished.  In  starting  the  second  layer,  the 
apples  are  placed  just  the  reverse  of  the  way  they  were  in  the  first 
layer,  the  first  row  coming  over  the  opening  between  the  apples 
of  the  first  row  beneath  and  the  second  over  the  opening  in  the 
second  row  of  the  first  layer,  etc. 

In  Table  I  is  given  data  concerning  straight  and  diagonal  box 
packs.  This  table  is  compiled  from  information  published  by 
Prof.  C.  I.  Lewis,  of  the  Oregon  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


21.     The  offset  pack  resembles  the  diagonal  pack  in  appear- 
ance but  differs  in  the  arrangement  of  the  fruit.    The  two  fonns 


36  APPLE  HARVESTING,  STORING,  §7 

of  the  offset  pack  that  are  most  commonly  used  are  shown  in 
Fig.  32;  in  (a)  is  shown  the  form  known  as  the  3-3,  or  3|-tier, 
pack  and  in  (6)  is  shown  the  form  known  as  the  4-4,  or  4|-tier, 
pack. 

The  3-3  offset  pack  is  started  by  placing  three  apples  in  one 
end  of  the  box  so  that  they  touch  each  other  and  one  of  them 
touches  the  comer  of  the  box.  This  leaves  a  space  at  the  oppo- 
site comer.  The  size  of  the  apples  should  be  such  that  the  space 
at  the  side  of  the  row  is  about  equal  to  one-third  or  one-half  of 
the  diameter  of  each  fruit.  The  second  row  of  three  apples  is 
started  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  box,  the  first  apple  fitting 
down  partly  into  the  open  space  of  the  first  row.  The  third  row 
is  started  on  the  same  side  as  the  first,  and  this  alternating  is 
continued  until  the  layer  is  complete.  The  first  row  of  the 
second  layer  is  started  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  box  from  the 
first  roV  of  the  first  layer  and  the  rows  are  alternate  as  in 
the  first  row.  The  third  layer  is  like  the  first  and  the  fourth 
like  the  second,  and  so  on. 

The  4-4  offset  pack  is  like  the  3-3  pack  except  in  the  number 
of  apples  in  a  row. 

The  offset  pack  is  an  easy  one  to  make,  but  the  large  open 
spaces  at  the  sides  give  much  opportunity  for  the  box  to  become 
slack.  In  addition,  these  spaces  give  the  appearance  of  the 
box  not  being  full,  which  is  likely  to  injure  its  sale. 

22.  No  matter  which  pack  is  used,  the  shape  of  the  apples 
determines  whether  they  shall  be  placed  on  the  end  or  the  side. 
As  a  rule,  round  or  oblate  apples  are  packed  on  end  and  oblong 
varieties  on  the  side.  However,  to  secure  the  proper  bulge 
described  later,  some  of  the  apples  in  a  box  may  be  turned  one 
way  and  some  the  other  way. 

It  is  obvious  that  to  avoid  bruising  of  the  fruit  the  boxes 
must  be  packed  so  that  they  will  not  become  slack  in  transit. 
Therefore,  firmness  of  the  pack  is  of  prime  importance.  Each 
apple  should  be  fitted  snugly  and  tightly  into  place,  but,  of 
course,  pressure  enough  to  bruise  the  fruit  should  not  be  applied. 
Apples  will  shrink  somewhat  in  storage  and  this  makes  firmness 
of  the  pack  doubly  important.    To  insure  a  firm  pack,  the  fruit 


§7 


AND  MARKETING 


37 


should  extend  to  the  ends  of  the  box.  Often  fruit  is  packed  so 
that  there  is  as  much  as  a  quarter  of  an  inch  of  space  at  the  end 
of  the  box  but  such  practice  should  be  avoided.  If  the  packer 
finds  that  a  layer  is  not  coming  out  well  he  should  repack  a  few 
rows  choosing  slightly  larger  apples,  or  turning  a  few  on  the  side 
or  on  the  end,  as  the  case  may  require.  By  exercising  judgment 
in  selecting  the  apples  as  the  packing  is  being  done,  a  novice  will 
soon  learn  to  make  a  firm  pack. 

A  bulge  at  the  top  and  the  bottom  of  the  box  is  necessary  to 
avoid  slackness  in  a  packed  box  of  apples,  as  the  spring  of  the 
boards  will  keep  the  fruit  firm  even  after  it  shrinks  slightly. 
Most  packers  like  a  bulge  of  f  inch  on  both  the  top  and  bottom. 
To  get  this  bulge  it  is  necessary  that  the  apples  be  packed  so 
that  the  last  layer  of  apples  comes  out  about  flush  with  the  two 


Fig.  33 


ends  at  the  top  of  the  box,  and  about  1|  inches  higher  than  the 
side  at  the  middle  of  the  box,  as  shown  in  Fig.  33  (a).  The  box, 
when  nailed,  will  then  bulge  at  both  top  and  bottom,  as  shown 
in  (fe) .  In  order  that  the  proper  bulge  may  be  secured  it  is  neces- 
sary that  the  second,  third,  and  subsequent  layers  be  slightly 
higher  at  the  center  than  at  the  ends.  This  is  done  by  choosing 
slightly  larger  apples,  or  if  the  apples  are  oblate,  by  turning 
some  of  them  on  the  side. 

In  the  case  of  very  large  apples  it  is  sometimes  difficult  to  get 
them  to  come  flush  with  the  ends,  and  to  avoid  crushing  the 
fruit  a  cleat  is  nailed  on  top  of  the  end  of  the  box  and  the  cover 
placed  above  this  cleat.  The  Hood  River  Apple  Growers  Union, 
of  Oregon,  gives  the  following  instructions  about  this  matter 
to  its  members: 

248—25 


ra) 


Fig.  34 


38 


AND  MARKETING 


39 


"Packers  shotild.  pack  apples  so  that  they  will  not  be  above 
the  top  of  the  box  at  either  end.  Growers  will  be  allowed  to 
refuse  to  nail  a  box  unless  so  packed.  If  absolutely  unavoidable 
in  very  large  apples,  the  grower  will  be  sure  to  put  on  cleats 
under  the  lid  at  both  ends." 

To  facilitate  the  nailing  of  covers  on  the  boxes  where  a  large 
number  are  packed,  some  kind  of  a  nailing  press  that  will  hold 
the  box  securely  while  the  cover  is  being  nailed  is  necessary. 
Box  presses  for  this  work  can  be  purchased  from  dealers  in 
orchard  supplies. 
Fig.  34  shows  a  de- 
sirable form.  When 
the  box  has  been 
filled  and  is  ready 
for  nailing,  it  is 
placed  on  the  press, 
and  the  boards  of 
the  cover  are  placed 
on  the  top,  as  shown 
in  (a).  Cleats  are 
then  placed  across 
the  ends  and  the 
clamps  a  are  forced 
down  on  these 
cleats  by  pressure 
on  the  foot-lever. 
The  cleats  are  then 
nailed  as  shown  in 
view  (&) ,  after  which 
the  clamps  are  released  and  the  box  is  removed  from  the  press. 
The  nails  are  held  in  the  box  b,  where  they  are  accessible  to  the 
one  doing  the  nailing. 

In  Fig.  35  is  shown  a  press  that  is  constructed  of  steel.  The 
operation  of  this  press  is  similar  to  that  of  the  press  just 
described,  except  that  it  is  not  necessary  for  the  nailer  to  bear 
down  on  the  foot-lever  while  the  nailing  is  being  done,  the  press 
locking  itself  until  released  by  the  lever  shown  at  the  bottom 
of  the  illustration. 


Fig.  35 


40  APPLE  HARVESTING,  STORING,  §7 

23.  Packing  of  Apples  in  Baskets. — ^When  apples  are 
being  packed  in  bushel  baskets,  a  basket  is  filled  about  half  full 
of  fruit  and  is  then  racked  slightly  to  level  the  pack.  The  basket 
is  next  filled  to  within  a  few  inches  of  the  top,  and  is  again 
racked,  this  time  a  follower  being  used.  The  package  is  next 
faced  by  arranging  the  top  apples  in  a  level  layer.  This  layer 
should  extend  above  the  edge  of  the  basket  for  an  inch  or  so, 
the  exact  height  depending  on  the  height  of  the  rim  of  the 
cover.  In  order  to  give  an  attractive  appearance,  the  apples 
of  the  face  should  be  of  uniform  size  and  color.  After  the  face 
has  been  completed,  the  cover  is  put  in  place  and  fastened. 
If  the  type  of  cover  illustrated  in  Fig.  20  is  used,  a  nail  placed 
in  the  center  of  the  strip  that  passes  through  the  handle  will 
keep  the  cover  in  place. 

STORING   OF   APPLES 

24.  The  fact  that  apples,  especially  those  of  fall  and  winter 
varieties,  can  be  kept  for  several  months  in  storage  before  being 
used,  very  much  lengthens  the  period  during  which  this  fruit 
can  be  consumed.  Facilities  for  the  storage  of  apples  are  almost 
indispensable,  so  far  as  the  grower  is  concerned,  for  with  them 
he  is  enabled  to  hold  the  fruit  at  times  when  there  is  a  plentiful 
supply  on  the  market  and  to  dispose  of  it  when  the  supply 
becomes  less.  One  advantage  of  apple  orcharding  over  the 
growing  of  many  other  kinds  of  fruits  is  the  fact  that  the  apple 
keeps  well  in  storage. 

It  is  the  nature  of  all  fruits  to  ripen  and  then  to  disintegrate. 
The  ripening  process  does  not  take  place  as  rapidly  at  low  tem- 
peratures as  at  high;  therefore,  the  purpose  in  the  storing  of 
fruit  in  cold  places  is  to  prolong  the  ripening  process.  In  the  case 
of  some  varieties,  ripening  cannot  be  greatly  prolonged;  in  the 
case  of  others,  it  can  be  retarded  so  that  the  fruit  will  keep  in 
storage  for  as  long  as  2  years. 

The  best  temperature  for  storage  rooms  is  the  lowest  it  is 
possible  to  obtain  without  freezing  the  fruit.  Experience  has 
demonstrated  that  for  apples  this  temperature  is  from  31°  to 
33°  F.;  at  lower  than  31°  F.  there  is  danger  of  apples  freez- 
ing.   It  is  important  that  apples  be  placed  at  a  low  temperature 


§  7  AND  MARKETING  41 

as  soon  as  possible  after  they  are  picked;  if  left  for  a  few- 
days  in  the  orchard,  especially  if  the  weather  is  hot,  they  may 
ripen  more  than  during  a  month  or  two  in  storage.  The 
maturity  of  the  fruit  too,  has  something  to  do  with  its  keeping 
quality  in  storage.  Overripe  fruit  will  disintegrate  sooner  than 
fruit  that  has  just  reached  full  development  and  attained  good 
color.  Closely  associated  with  the  length  of  time  apples  will 
keep  in  storage  is  the  length  of  time  they  will  keep  when  taken 
out  of  storage.  If  they  have  been  stored  for  a  long  time,  they 
will  usually  keep  for  but  a  short  time  after  taken  out  of  the 
storage  room.  Apples  held  in  storage  for  a  short  time  keep 
longer  after  they  are  taken  out  of  storage,  of  course,  than  those 
kept  in  storage  for  a  longer  time. 

Varieties  of  apples  vary  greatly  in  the  length  of  time  they  will 
keep  in  storage.  Ben  Davis,  Mann,  and  some  of  the  Russets 
are  good  keepers ;  Wealthy  and  Wagener  will'  keep  only  until 
about  January  or  February.  Some  varieties  like  the  Jonathan, 
for  example,  are  poor  keepers  in  the  cellar  or  a.t  ordinary  tem- 
peratures but  are  good  keepers  in  cold  storage;  occasionally  a 
variety,  the  York  Imperial  for  instance,  does  better  in  cellar 
storage  than  in  cold  storage.  It  has  been  foimd,  also,  that  a 
variety  grown  in  a  northern  latitude  or  at  a  high  altitude  has 
better  keeping  qualities  in  storage  than  the  same  variety  grown 
farther  south  or  at  a  lower  altitude. 

Fruit  of  good  quality  is  necessary  for  successful  storage. 
Apples  that  are  partly  decayed  are  sure  to  spoil  if  kept  for  any 
length  of  time,  even  at  a  low  temperatiire,  and  wormy  or  other- 
wise defective  fruit  is  not  worth  the  cost  of  storage.  Apples 
should  be  carefully  sorted,  therefore,  before  being  placed  in 
storage,  and  only  those  of  the  best  quality  reserved  for  the 
storage  room;  the  second  grade,  or  inferior  fruit,  should  be 
disposed  of  at  once  for  what  it  will  bring. 

After  apples  have  been  placed  in  storage  they  should  be 
undisturbed  until  ready  to  be  moved,  for  excessive  handling 
seems  to  injure  the  keeping  quality. 

25.  Commercial  Cold  Storage. — In  cities  and  towns 
apple  growers  can  generally  find  commercial  cold-storage  houses 


42  APPLE  HARVESTING,  STORING,  §  7 

in  which  space  is  for  rent.  When  contemplating  the  renting  of 
space,  a  grower  should  ascertain  whether  the  storage  house  in 
question  has  stored  apples  successfully  in  the  past,  for  often 
plants  are  not  conducted  primarily  as  storage  places  for  fruit, 
but  rather  for  meat,  eggs,  and  butter.  These  products  require 
a  lower  temperature  than  fruit  does;  and  if  separate  rooms  of 
the  proper  temperattire  ar«  not  maintained  for  fruit,  it  is  likely 
not  to  keep  satisfactorily. 

The  price  for  commercial  storage  space  varies  in  different 
localities.  The  usual  rate  for  bushel  boxes  or  baskets  is  from 
15  to  25  cents  from  picking  time  to  April  1,  and  for  barrels  is 
from  25  to  60  cents.  There  is  usually  an  additional  charge  per 
month  for  fruit  left  in  storage  after  April  1. 

26.  Farm  Cold  Storage. — Growers  whose  orchards  are 
at  a  considerable  distance  from  market  or  shipping  stations,  or 
who  cannot  find  convenient  or  cheap  facilities  for  storing  fruit 
in  commercial  storage  houses,  often  find  it  advantageous  to 
maintain  a  storage  house  on  the  farm.  Such  houses  can  be  used 
to  hold  the  fruit  temporarily,  or  if  they  are  well  constructed, 
during  the  whole  season.  Individual  conditions  will,  of  neces- 
sity, determine  whether  or  not  such  a  house  is  required  or  is 
practicable. 

Ice  is  often  used  as  the  cooling  agent  in  storage  houses  of 
farms,  but  the  principal  disadvantage  is  the  fact  that  it  usually 
must  be  kept  from  winter  until  the  next  fall  before  being  used 
in  the  fruit  house.  Therefoie,  unless  ice  is  plentiful  and  cheap, 
ice  storage  is  not  especially  economical.  When  used  in  fruit- 
storage  houses,  the  ice  is  placed  in  a  room  above  the  one  where 
the  fruit  is  stored,  and  cold  air  from  this  room  is  conducted  by 
means  of  shafts  to  the  lower  part  of  the  storage  room  and  the 
warm  air  is  conducted  from  the  storage  room  through  shafts 
that  open  at  the  roof.  All  of  the  walls  should  be  built  with  dead- 
air  spaces  for  insulation. 

27.  In  the  northern  part  of  the  United  States  and  in  the 
provinces  of  Canada,  storage  houses  that  are  cooled  by  ventila- 
tion are  much  used.  This  plan  of  cooling  is  economical  and  if 
properly  managed  is  very  satisfactory.    The  cold  air  is  admitted 


§7 


AND  MARKETING 


43 


near  the  bottom  of  the  room,  and  is,  of  course,  from  the  outside; 
the  warm-air  outlets  are  in  the  ceiling.  The  number  of  cold-air 
intakes  and  warm-air  outlets  will,  of  course,  vary  with  the  size 
of  the  building,  but  they  should  be  ample  to  secure  a  good  circu- 
lation of  air  when  desired  and  should  be  provided  with  opening 


2  Ce//i'n^^^^  Bu/Mi'nff  Paper 


and  closing  devices  that  can  be  operated  at  will.  Several  cold- 
air  intakes  are  preferable  to  one,  and  if  the  room  is  longer  than, 
say,  14  to  16  feet,  it  is  advisable  to  have  two  outlet  ventilators 
in  the  ceiling.  For  a  room  12  ft.  X  12  ft.  or  12  ft.  X  14  ft.,  one 
outlet  will  be  sufficient.  The  walls  should  be  made  with  at  least 
one  dead-air  space,  and  two  such  spaces  are  preferable.    These 


44 


APPLE  HARVESTING,  STORING, 


§7 


provide    against    outside    changes    of    temperature   and   are 
absolutely  necessary  for  proper  insulation. 

28.  In  Fig.  36  (a)  is  shown  a  well-designed  storage  house  of 
the  type  cooled  by  ventilation.  It  is  24  feet  long,  14  feet  wide, 
and  10  feet  high  at  the  ridge.  The  walls  are  made  with  two 
dead-air  spaces.  Two  ventilators  a  and  four  intakes  b,  two  in 
each  side,  are  provided.  In  (b)  is  shown  the  wall  construction 
of  the  house.  The  temperature  changes  in  the  house  are  secured 
by  opening  and  closing  the  intakes  and  outlets.     For  several 


Fig.  37 

days  before  the  house  is  to  be  used,  the  doors  and  windows  are 
closed,  and  on  cool  nights  the  air  ducts  are  opened  and  in  the 
morning  before  the  sun  gets  high  they  are  closed.  This 
tends  to  cool  the  air  on  the  inside.  If  a  particularly  cool  day 
occurs,  the  doors  and  windows  are  opened.  After  the  fruit  has 
been  placed  in  the  house,  the  temperature  is  watched  and  the 
ventilators  and  intake  ducts  opened  and  closed  accordingly. 
When  freezing  weather  occurs,  the  doors  and  windows  are 
opened  during  the  warmest  part  of  the  day,  or  if  necessary,  oil 
heaters  are  used  to  reduce  the  temperature. 


§7 


AND  MARKETING 


45 


In  Fig.  37  is  illustrated  a  frame  storage  house  of  sufficient  size 
to  hold  about  1,500  bushels  of  apples  in  bulk.  The  house  is 
16  feet  wide  and  24  feet  long,  outside  measurements,  and  has 
10-inch  double  walls  that  are  packed  with  sawdust.     Ventilation 


'-0~ ^I5'A 


(ft) 

Fig.  38 


The 


is  secured  by  means  of  ventilators  a  and  intake  chutes  h. 
doors  at  the  side  and  end  are  also  used  for  ventilation. 

A  concrete  storage  house  that  is  suitable  for  use  where  from 
about  6,000  to  7,000  bushels  of  apples  are  stored  annually  is 
shown  in  Fig.  38.  In  (a)  is  shown  the  exterior  appearance  of  the 
building.    Four  roof  ventilators  and  two  air  intakes  are  provided. 


46 


APPLE  HARVESTING,  STORING, 


§7 


The  first  four  pipes  in  the  roof,  or  those  back  to  a,  are  ventilators; 
the  pipe  at  the  back  is  an  intake  chute  that  extends  downwards 
through  the  rear  wall  to  a  point  near  the  floor.    The  other  intake 


■i^i^^^ng^f^ 


is  shown  at  b.  The  dimensions  and  method  of  construction  are 
shown  in  view  (6).  The  apples  are  stored  in  bins  arranged  as 
illustrated.  A  house  of  this  kind  can  be  built  for  from  $800  to 
$1,200,  depending  on  the  cost  of  material  and  labor. 


§7  AND  MARKETING  47 

In  Fig.  39  is  shown  a  storage  house  that  is  constructed  of 
stone,  concrete,  and  cement  plaster.  As  in  the  house  just 
described,  there  are  four  roof  ventilators  a,  and  two  intakes,  the 
pipe  at  the  back  being  an  intake,  as  in  the  house  shown  in  Fig.  38 ; 
the  other  intake  is  shown  at  6.  In  view  (6)  is  shown  the  dimen- 
sions and  method  of  construction  of  the  house.  The  front  of  the 
house  is  constructed  of  concrete  and  over  the  roof  is  placed  about 
1  foot  of  earth.  The  interior  is  divided  into  two  rooms,  the  front 
one  being  used  as  a  packing  room  and  the  rear  one  as  a  storage 
room.  The  front  room  is  20  feet  long  and  the  rear  room  is  60  feet 
long.  The  apples  are  kept  in  bins,  arranged  as  shown  in  the 
illustration.  The  storage  room  will  hold  between  6,000  and  7,000 
bushels  of  apples.  Such  a  house  can  be  built  for  about  from 
$1,200  to  $1,500. 

When  a  good  cellar  is  available,  winter  apples  may  be  kept 
there  in  fairly  good  condition  until  January  or  February  and 
often  later.  A  cellar  for  apples  must  be  frost-proof  but  at  the 
same  time  it  should  be  cool  and  somewhat  moist. 

29.  When  comparatively  few  apples  are  to  be  stored,  they 
can  be  satisfactorily  taken  care  of  in  pits  dug  in  the  ground. 
The  size  of  the  pit  will  depend,  of  course,  on  the  quantity  of 
fruit  to  be  stored;  as  a  rule,  from  30  to  50  bushels  is  about  as 
large  a  quantity  as  should  be  stored  in  one  pit.  The  excavation 
may  be  about  3  or  4  feet  obep,  and  a  trench  should  be  dug  around 
it  to  provide  drainage.  A  small  quantity  of  straw  is  piled  in  the 
pit,  the  fruit  is  piled  on  this  straw,  then  a  layer  of  straw  is  placed 
over  the  fruit,  and  boards  are  placed  over  this.  It  is  well  to  make 
the  pile  cone-shaped  and  to  arrange  a  bottomless  box  of  wood 
from  the  top  to  the  outside  air  to  provide  ventilation.  Above 
the  straw  and  boards  a  thin  layer  of  earth  is  piled,  and  as  the 
weather  becomes  colder  more  earth  is  added.  Apples  will  keep 
very  well  in  such  a  pit,  especially  if  the  fruit  is  not  often 
disturbed.  Perhaps  the  best  way  is  to  take  all  of  them  out  at 
the  same  time;  however,  it  is  possible  to  open  the  pit  occasion- 
ally and  remove  a  few  apples,  and  still  have  the  others  keep 
fairly  well. 


48  APPLE  HARVESTING,  STORING, 


MARKETING  OF  APPLES 


RETAIL   MARKETING 

30.  When  a  grower  sells  apples  at  retail  direct  to  consumers 
or  sells  to  retail  merchants  who,  in  turn,  sell  to  consumers,  he 
has  a  personal  acquaintance  with  his  customers  and  is  thus 
enabled  to  cater  to  their  individual  demands.  This  acquaintance 
gives  him  an  opportunity  to  sell  varieties  that,  although  they 
have  good  qualities,  are  not  well  known  on  the  general  market. 
On  a  local  market  small  quantities  of  fruit  can  be  disposed  of, 
and,  as  a  rule,  the  margin  of  profit  on  the  individual  package  is 
likely  to  be  greater  than  if  the  fruit  is  sold  at  wholesale.  In  addi- 
tion, competition  is  likely  to  be  less  when  fruit  is  sold  at  retail 
than  when  it  is  sold  at  wholesale,  as  special  customers  that  will 
buy  the  grower's  fruit  year  after  year  may  be  secured,  whereas 
in  the  wholesale  market  the  fruit  is  in  competition  with  large 
quantities  of  the  same  kind  and  quality.  Often,  too,  a  grower 
who  sells  apples  at  retail  can  secure  the  profit  that  otherwise 
would  go  to  commission  men  and  wholesale  merchants.  In  this 
case,  however,  he  must,  in  a  measure,  do  the  work  of  these  men, 
bearing  the  cost  of  collections,  loss  in  bad  debts,  cost  of  delivery, 
etc.  The  grower  who  is  selling  apples  to  private  customers  can 
often  save  the  price  of  the  fruit  package  by  delivering  in  bags, 
used  boxes,  crates,  etc.,  leaving  the  consumer  only  the  fruit. 

A  grower  selling  at  retail  must  keep  in  touch  with  the  local 
demands  for  fruit  and  the  prices  as  shown  by  market  quotation, 
and  make  his  prices  accordingly.  He  is  salesman  as  well  as 
grower,  and  his  success  will  depend  largely  on  his  ability  to 
handle  each  operation.  A  good  grower  may  be  a  poor  salesman, 
and  a  poor  grower  a  good  salesman ;  in  the  case  of  either  success 
may  not  be  attained.  It  is  when  a  grower  is  good  both  at  the 
production  end  and  the  selling  end  that  he  is  likely  to  be  a 
success  at  selling  at  retail.  . 


§  7  AND  MARKETING  49 


WHOLESALE  MARKETING 

31.  Apples  sold  on  the  wholesale,  or  general,  market  are 
handled  in  large  quantities  and  the  margin  of  profit  on  each 
package  to  the  grower  is  usually  smaller  than  if  sold  at  retail. 
The  fruit  is  generally  handled  by  a  commission  man  or  other 
middleman,  and  hence  the  grower  does  not  come  into  direct 
contact  with  the  consumer.  When  apples  are  grown  for  the 
wholesale  market,  only  a  few  varieties  should  be  offered  for  sale 
and  these  should  be  of  the  standard  varieties  that  are  quoted  on 
the  general  market.  As  a  rule,  only  first-class  fruit  should  be 
offered  at  wholesale,  and  it  shordd  be  well  packed  and  be  in  the 
type  of  package  generally  handled  on  the  particular  market  to 
which  it  is  shipped.  Careful  grading  of  the  fruit  is  also  a  prime 
reqmsite,  as  the  appearance  of  the  produce  has  much  to  do  with 
the  price  it  will  bring. 

A  grower  who  sells  at  wholesale  must  study  the  market 
demands,  for  different  markets  desire  different  varieties  of  fruit. 
Boston,  Philadelphia,  New  York,  Chicago,  St.  Louis,  and,  in 
fact,  all  large  markets  differ  somewhat  as  to  market  demands, 
and  thus  it  is  to  the  advantage  of  a  grower  to  find  out  which 
market  is  likely  to  pay  the  best  price  for  the  variety  or  varieties 
he  has  for  sale. 

32.  A  grower  usually  has  several  methods  by  which  he  can 
dispose  of  his  crop  at  wholesale.  A  buyer  may  come  to  the 
orchard  and  offer  a  certain  amount  for  the  crop  as  a  whole,  or 
may  offer  to  take  the  crop  at  so  much  a  barrel  or  box  for  the 
apples  packed,  or  may  contract  for  the  fruit  picked  and  delivered 
to  the  packing  tables.  Again,  the  grower  may  pack  the  fnut 
himself  and  ship  it  to  commission  men  at  market  centers  who 
will  dispose  of  it  and  return  the  grower  the  balance  due  after  they 
have  deducted  commissions  and  other  expenses. 

Whether  to  sell  direct  to  buyers  or  through  commission  men 
will  depend  largely  on  local  conditions  and  on  the  grower's 
knowledge  of  market  prices  and  market  demands.  No  general 
rule  as  to  which  method  is  the  better  can  be  given;  each 
grower  will  have  to  solve  this  problem  for  himself. 


50  APPLE  HARVESTING,  STORING,  §  7 

When  about  to  sell  a  consignment  through  a  commission  man, 
the  grower  should  find  a  dealer  who  has  the  reputation  of  being 
thoroughly  honest  and  who  knows  the  demands  of  the  trade  in 
the  market  in  which  he  sells.  Such  a  dealer  is  in  a  position  to 
give  the  grower  advice  that,  if  heeded,  will  be  the  means  of 
making  him  additional  profit.  All  apples  shipped  to  the  commis- 
sion man  shoiild  be  graded  and  honestly  packed;  a  few  poorly 
graded  and  dishonestly  packed  consignments  will  so  injure  the 
reputation  of  a  grower  that  when  his  fruit  comes  to  the  market 
it  is  looked  on  with  disfavor.  When  a  commission  man  is  found 
to  be  thoroughly  reliable  and  satisfactory,  he  should  be  retained 
year  after  year.  If  a  different  commission  man  is  retained  each 
year  it  will  be  necessary  for  each  one  to  learn  the  merits  of  the 
grower's  fruit. 

33.  Cooperative  selling  of  apples  is  perhaps  the  ideal  way 
of  disposing  of  them,  provided  all  members  and  officers  of  the 
selling  organization  do  their  work  faithfully  and  well.  The 
greatest  success  in  cooperative  selling  is  attained  when  the  fruit 
is  put  on  the  market  under  a  brand  that  becomes  known  as  a 
guarantee  of  an  absolutely  honest  grade  of  goods.  Such  goods 
will  have  a  reputation  in  the  market  that  will  cause  them  to  sell 
for  prices  higher  than  is  generally  received  for  the  same  grade 
of  produce.  Cooperative  selling  of  a  certain  brand  of  apples  is, 
as  a  rule,  better  than  the  selling  of  a  brand  by  an  individual 
grower,  for  but  few  growers  have  fruit  enough  for  sale  annually 
to  impress  a  market  to  an  appreciable  extent. 

34.  Many  apples  are  shipped  annually  and  sold  at  wholesale 
to  foreign  markets,  principally  to  England.  Many  of  the  boxed 
apples  from  the  West,  including  the  Spitzenburg,  Delicious, 
and  Newtown  Pippin,  find  a  ready  sale  in  England,  as  do  the 
Northern  Spy,  King,  Greening,  Baldwin,  Fameuse,  and  Mann 
of  the  Eastern  States  and  Canadian  Provinces.  Apples  that 
are  to  be  shipped  to  foreign  countries  should  be  very  carefully 
graded  and  securely  packed,  as  only  good  fruit  that  reaches  its 
destination  in  good  condition  will  sell  readily. 

As  a  large  part  of  the  apples  exported  go  to  Great  Britain,  it 
is  well  for  a  grower  to  know  something  of  selling  methods  at 


§7 


AND  MARKETING 


51 


Liverpool,  Glasgow,  and  London,  the  principal  ports  in  Great 
Britain  for  the  sale  of  apples.  The  fruit,  as  a  rule,  is  sold  at  auc- 
tion.    Each  shipment 

n  1^  —  Q 


L^ 


PACKEDAND     ,,      ^' jii'i'.i--'.- '-"P'^'/X^    ^,  'W"*™  YAKIMA 
SH1PPE08Y    >]y;</JCJi/'j.L,ii    UilJ,Oll      W*SH.U.SA 


tl  BLUE  RmSON  BRAND  '1 


is  kept  separate  and 
before  the  auction  any 
buyer  may  go  among 
the  packages  and  open 
as  many  as  two  of  each 
lot.  Then  at  the  auc- 
tion, one  package  is 
opened  and  bids  are 
made  on  the  whole 
shipment  or  on  any 
part  of  it.  Thus,  it 
may  be  seen  that  to 
be  sure  of  the  piir- 
chaser  opening  a  pack- 
age of  good  fruit,  the 
shipment  should  be 
imiformly  good. 

In  Great  Britain, 
fruit  is  sometimes  sold 
by  shippers  direct  to 
dealers  or  to  private 
salesmen,  the  pur- 
chaser thus  saving  the 
commissions  charged 
at  the  auction.  This 
method  of  selling  is 
especially  desirable  for 
growers  or  associa- 
tions that  can  guarantee  their  fruit  to  be  of  a  uniformly  good 
grade. 


Fig.  40 


52 


APPLE  HARVESTING,  STORING, 


§7 


MISCELLANEOUS  INFORMATION  ABOUT  MARKETING 

35.  Labels  for  Apple  Packages. — Experience  has  shown 
that  the  use  of  appropriate  labels  on  apple  packages  is  a  paying 
proposition,  especially  if  the  fruit  is  of  one  of  the  best  grades. 

A  label  serves  to  ad- 
vertise the  products 
of  an  orchard,  and 
if  it  is  always  used 
for  fniit  of  uniform 
grade,  it  guarantees, 
in  a  way,  to  the  com- 
mission man  and  the 
purchaser  that  the 
fruit  in  the  package 
is  of  good  quality. 
Consumers  soon  learn 
to  recognize  and  call 
for  labeled  fruit  from 
certain  orchards,  and 
this  fact  has  been 
worth  much  to  cer- 
tain growers.  A  label 
should  be  neat,  at- 
tractive, and  sugges- 
tive of  the  quality  of 
the  fruit.  In  Figs.  40 
and  41  are  shown  re- 
productions of  litho- 
graphed labels  used 
for  boxed  fruit  grown 
in  the  Pacific  Coast 
States.  Fig.  42  shows 
the  forms  of  label 
used  for  boxes,  baskets,  and  barrels  by  a  fruit  company  in 
Pennsylvania.  In  Fig.  43  is  shown  an  inexpensive  but  attrac- 
tive label  used  by  an  Ohio  grower  for  a  particular  variety; 
the  original  from  which  this  cut  was  made  is  printed  on  pink 


inr^:i^NCl^ 


EA.HIHN  COMPANY. 

SAK1ACRUZ 


Fig.  41 


§7 


AND  MARKETING 


53 


paper  with  green  ink  and  the  effect  is  very  pleasing.  In 
Fig.  44  is  illustrated  a  label  used  by  a  Pennsylvania  company 
for  boxes  of  fancy  fruit.  It  is  printed  in  red  ink  on  white  paper, 
and  is  very  attractive.  Fig.  45  shows  a  label  for  barrels  used  by 
an  orchard  company  of  Maryland.    The  small  cut  in  the  center 


vARfETY-fANCY  Northern  Spys 


Fig.  42 

cf  this  illustration  is  a  half-tone  engraving  showing  an  orchard 
scene.  The  half-tone  is  printed  in  black  ink  and  the  rest  of  the 
label  in  blue  ink,  white  paper  being  used.  The  label  is  suffi- 
ciently large  to  cover  the  entire  head  of  a  barrel. 

36.     Keeping  in  Touch  witli  the  Market. — Whether  a 
grower  seUs  to  a  commission  man  or  to  retailers  or  to  consumers 

248—26 


54 


APPLE  HARVESTING,  STORING, 


§7 


TALMAN 
SWEETS 

GOOD  FOR  BAKING 


FROM 


Clover  Leaf  Fruit  Farm 


direct,  he  shoiild  keep  informed  about  current  prices  of  fruit.  The 
telephone  and  daily  market  reports,  both  local  and  general,  will 
aid  in  this  matter.    If  his  fruit  is  sold  by  an  association  this  work 

will,  of  course,  be  done 
for  him.  As  late  fall 
and  winter  varieties 
of  apples  can  be  kept 
for  a  time  in  cold  stor- 
age, the  grower  or 
association  can  hold 
the  fruit  until  the  mar- 
ket seems  right  for  a 
sale.  In  the  case  of 
summer  and  early  fall 
varieties,  storage  is 
not  so  much  of  a  help, 
but  even  with  most  of  such  varieties  the  fruit  can  be  kept  for 
a  time.  In  selling  summer  varieties  on  a  local  market,  a  grower 
should  watch  the  shipments  of  peaches  and  avoid  sending  a 
large  consignment  of  apples  to  market  when  peaches  are  there 
in  abundance,  for  con- 
sumers are  more  likely 
to  purchase  summer 
apples  when  peaches 
are  scarce  than  when 
plentiful. 


W.  W.  Farnsworth 
Waterville,    Ohio. 


Fig.  43 


THIS  BOX  CONTAINS  FANCY  APPLES 

GROWN  AND  PACKED  AT 

EXETER  FRUIT  FARMS 


Every  apple  in  this  box  is  guaranteed  to  be 
perfect  in  size,  shape  and  color,  free  from 
worms,  scale  and  all  fungus  diseases.  All 
persons  are  warned  not  to  repack  or  refill  this 
box  without  first  destroying  this  label. 


No.  Apples- 
Variety 


W.  J.  LEWIS  &  BRO. 

Pittston.  Pa. 


37.     Maintaining 
the  Price  of  Apples. 

On  a  local  market,  and 
on  a  wholesale  mar- 
ket, when  possible,  it 
is  well  to  ask  a  good 
price  for  first-class 
apples.  Consumers 
are,  as  a  rule,  willing  to  pay  well  for  good  fruit,  and  the  grower 
who  gives  his  time  and  energy  to  the  production  of  such  fruit 
should  have  just  compensation. 


Fig.  44 


§7 


AND  MARKETING 


55 


38.  Use  of  Clean  Packages. — All  barrels,  boxes,  baskets, 
and  crates  that  are  to  be  retained  by  the  consimier  should  be 
new  and  clean;  it  is  poor  business  to  place  apples  in  soiled 
packages  and  offer  them  to  a  customer,  even  at  a  slightly  lower 
price  than  for  fruit  in  a  new  package.  Attractiveness  counts 
for  much ;  it  creates  a  desire  for  the  fruit  and  thus  makes  it  more 
salable. 


Fig.  45 

39.     Importance   of   Careful   Grading  and  Packing. 

Whether  fruit  is  to  be  sold  in  large  or  small  lots,  careful  grading 
and  honest  packing  are  essential  for  the  securing  of  good  prices. 
Grading  to  size  and  color  gives  a  more  uniform  and  hence  a  more 
attractive  appearance,  and  grading  to  quality  insures  that  a 
package  will  keep  well,  and  thus  not  be  a  disappointment  to  the 
consumer.  Honest  packing  is  a  means  of  securing  satisfied 
customers,  which  are  necessary  to  the  success  of  any  form  of 
merchandising.  If  customers  are  satisfied  they  will  ask  for 
apples  from  the  grower's  orchard  when  they  wish-to  purchase 
fruit  again. 


56  APPLE  HARVESTING.  STORING,  '  §  7 

40.  Importajice  of  Honest  Labeling. — Honest  labeling 
of  packages  is  a  matter  of  business  that  the  grower  cannot  fail 
to  neglect.  The  marking  of  a  barrel  No.  1  when  it  shoiild  be  a 
No.  2,  or  a  box  fancy  when  it  should  be  choice,  is  poor  business, 
for  it  will  be  the  means  of  dissatisfying  customers  and,  if 
discovered  by  wholesale  buyers,  will  result  in.  a  small  check 
being  returned  to  the  grower. 

41.  Advertising  of  Fruit. — ^The  grower  who  sells  his 
fruit  on  a  local  market  is,  in  a  sense,  a  merchant  and  as  such 
should  advertise  his  product.  This  he  can  do  by  practicing 
carefiil  grading,  honest  packing,  honest  labeling,  and  by  using 
clean  and  attractive  packages.  In  addition,  he  should  advertise 
in  local  newspapers  or  in  other  such  mediums  of  publicity.  An 
advertisement  in  a  local  paper  stating  that  a  certain  grower 
offers  apples  for  sale  and  that  the  apples  are  all  sound  and  free 
from  defects,  is  almost  sure  to  be  a  good  business  move.  Adver- 
tising by  means  of  attractive  labels,  as  previously  explained,  and 
by  attractive  displays  of  fruit  where  consumers  will  see  them, 
are  good  methods  of  attracting  attention.  Fruit  growers'  asso- 
ciations make  extensive  use  of  such  means;  in  fact,  some  asso- 
ciations employ  advertising  managers  whose  business  it  is  to 
see  that  the  public  becomes  acquainted  with  the  brands  and 
fruit  of  the  association. 


UTILIZATION  OF  INFERIOR  APPLES 

42.  The  utilization  of  inferior  apples  is  an  important  prob- 
lem connected  with  marketing  of  the  products  of  an  orchard. 
In  fact,  the  working  up  of  otherwise  waste  apples  into  some 
salable  form  is  often  the  means  of  bringing  considerably 
increased  profits  to  a  grower.  Among  the  products  that  can 
be  made  from  culls  are  evaporated  apples,  canned  apples, 
apple  butter,  apple  jelly,  apple  cider,  and  apple  vinegar. 

43.  Evaporated  Apples. — One  of  the  principal  products 
that  can  be  made  from  second-grade  fruit  is  evaporated  apples. 
Experience  has  proved  that  fall  and  winter  apples  give  a  better 
yield  and  quality  of  dried  fruit  than  do  summer  apples.    The 


§7 


AND  MARKETING 


57 


average  yield  of  evaporated  apples  is  from  5  to  7  pounds  per 
bushel  of  fresh  fruit.  In  most  sections  where  apples  are  produced 
abundantly,  commercial  evaporating  houses  are  to  be  found 
where  the  grower  can  dispose  of  apples  not  suitable  for  packing. 
These  establishments  generally  evaporate  fruit  more  cheaply 
than  a  grower  can,  and  therefore,  where  such  a  house  is  conve- 
niently near  the  orchard,  it  usually  pays  the  grower  to  sell  his 
ciills  rather  than  to  evaporate  them  himself.  However,  there 
are  on  the  market 
small  evaporators  that 
can  be  used  on  the 
farm,  and  where  no 
commercial  establish- 
ment is  near,  they  can 
be  made  an  effective 
means  of  preparing 
ctdls  for  market.  One 
of  the  simplest  evap- 
orators for  home  use  is 
illustrated  in  Fig.  46. 
It  is  simply  a  box  that 
is  placed  on  top  of  a 
kitchen  range  or  stove. 
The  fruit  to  be  evap- 
orated is  placed  in  the 
drawers,  or  trays,  a, 
which  have  galvan- 
ized wire  screen  bot- 
toms, and  the  heat 
from  the  fire  in  the 
stove  does  the  evaporating.  This  evaporator  can  be  used,  also, 
on  a  gas,  gasoline,  or  kerosene  stove. 

In  Fig.  47  is  shown  an  evaporator  with  a  furnace  attached. 
The  fruit,  when  prepared  for  evaporating,  is  placed  in  the  trays 
a,  which  are  then  put  in  place  in  the  evaporator.  The  capacity 
of  the  machine  illustrated  is  from  30  to  50  bushels  of  apples  per 
day,  but  machines  of  this  type  that  range  in  capacity  from  4  to 
150  bushels  per  day  can  be  purchased. 


Fig.  46 


58 


AND  MARKETING 


59 


In  Fig.  48  is  shown  another  form  of  evaporator  with  a  furnace 
attached.  This  evaporator  is  made  of  metal  and  can  be  pur- 
chased in  sizes  ranging  from  3  to  30  bushels  per  day.  The 
evaporator  illustrated  has  a  capacity  of  from  5  to  7  bushels  per 
day. 

Evaporated  apples  are  placed  on  the  market  whole,  in  quar- 
ters, in  sixths,  or  sliced.  Perhaps  the  commonest  method  is  to 
market  them  in  slices  a  quarter  of  an  inch  in  thickness,  the  cut 
being  made  across  the  apple 
at  right  angles  to  the  core. 
Mechanical  parers,  corers, 
slicers,  quarter ers,  etc.  are 
on  the  market.  Small  ma- 
chines that  work  by  hand 
or  foot  power  can  be  had 
and  their  use  is  recom- 
mended whenever  a  grower 
has  enough  fruit  to  evap- 
orate to  make  their  use 
practicable. 

After  the  fruit  has  been 
pared  and  cored  and,  un- 
less evaporated  whole,  cut 
into  quarters,  sixths,  or 
slices,  it  is  treated  for  a 
short  time  to  the  fumes  of 
burning  sulphur,  which" pre- 
vent the  discoloring  of  the 
pieces  by  preventing  oxida- 
tion. Special  appliances, 
known  as  color  setters,  in  which  the  sulphur  is  burned,  are 
supplied  with  large  evaporators.  When  use  is  made  of  the 
cook-stove  type  of  evaporator,  a  small  piece  of  sulphur  the 
size  of  a  pea  is  placed  on  the  top  of  the  stove.  This  sulphur 
soon  ignites  and  the  fumes  prevent  the  discoloration  of  the  fruit 
in  the  trays  above. 

Following  the  color  setting,  as  the  process  just  referred  to  is 
called,  the  fruit  is  placed  on  trays  in  the  evaporator  and  heated 


Fig.  48 


60  APPLE  HARVESTING,  STORING  §7 

until  a  certain  amount  of  the  moisture  in  the  fruit  has  been 
evaporated.  The  length  of  time  necessary  for  evaporation  will, 
of  course,  vary  with  the  heat  and  with  the  size  of  the  pieces. 
No  general  rule  as  to  time  can  be  given.  In  this  matter  the 
grower  should  be  guided  by  the  directions  that  come  with  the 
machine.  The  condition  of  the  fruit  is,  however,  somewhat  of 
a  guide  as  to  when  the  fruit  is  sufficiently  evaporated.  When  a 
handful  of  pieces  is  squeezed  into  a  m.ass  in  the  hand  they  should 
be  springy  enough  when  pressure  is  released  to  separate  and 
show  no  signs  of  sticking  together.  Moisture  should  not  be  in 
evidence  on  the  surface  of  the  pieces,  nor  should  juice  show  when 
one  of  the  pieces  is  cut  or  broken. 

44.  Canned  Apples. — Most  of  the  canned  apples  on  the 
market  are  put  up  by  commercial  canning  factories.  If  a 
grower  is  near  an  establishment  of  this  kind  he  can  often  get 
a  fair  price  for  his  second-grade  apples.  Small  canning  outfits 
suitable  for  use  on  farms  are  on  the  market  at  prices  ranging 
from  $100  to  $300  or  inore,  depending  on  the  size,  capacity,  etc. 
They  can  be  used  for  peaches,  small  fruits,  tomatoes,  and  other 
vegetables  as  well  as  for  apples.  Whether  or  not  it  will  pay  a 
grower  to  own  and  operate  a  small  canning  outfit  will  depend 
largely  on  the  quantity  of  fruit  and  vegetables  that  he  will  have 
for  canning  and  the  availability  of  labor. 

45.  Apple  Butter. — There  is  considerable  demand  on 
the  market  for  home-made  apple  butter,  and  if  a  grower  can 
work  up  a  special  trade  for  this  product  he  is  likely  to  find  that 
apple-butter  making  is  a  profitable  way  to  utilize  apples  that 
would  otherwise  be  wasted. 

46.  Apple  Jelly. — The  making  of  apple  jelly  at  home  for 
sale  commercially  is  not  generally  conducive  to  profit,  as  the 
grower  must  compete  with  large  manufacturers.  If,  however, 
a  grower  can  make  jelly  for  a  special  trade  and  be  sure  of  the 
sale  of  the  product  at  a  fair  price,  it  is  possible  to  make  this  a 
profitable  method  of  disposing  of  inferior  fruit.  Small  outfits 
for  the  making  of  jelly  can  be  purchased  from  dealers  in  canning 
supplies. 


§  7  AND  MARKETING  61 

47.  Apple  Cider  and  Apple  Vinegar. — The  poorest 
apples  from  the  orchard  can  be  made  into  cider  and  used  as 
such,  or  the  cider  can  be  allowed  to  turn  to  vinegar.  The 
making  of  cider  is  a  business  apart  from  the  growing  of  apples, 
and  usually  a  cider  mill  can  be  found  in  any  community  where 
business  warrants  it.  The  profits  from  apples  made  into  cider 
are  small,  and  if  much  time  is  required  to  get  the  fruit  to  the 
mill,  it  is  often  more  profitable  to  feed  such  apples  to  the  live- 
stock of  the  farm. 


PEAR  CULTURE 

(PART  1) 


INTRODUCTION 

1.  The  pear-growing  industry  of  the  world,  although  very 
old,  has,  from  the  beginning,  been  subject  to  more  or  less 
adverse  conditions  that  have  operated  to  discourage  extensive 
production.  In  the  early  writings  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans, 
numerous  references  are  made  to  pears  and  to  pear  ciilture, 
but  emphasis  is  placed  on  the  fact  that  the  pears  were  of  ver^^ 
poor  quality  and  could  be  used  only  to  make  beverages.  In 
English  and  American  horticrdtural  works  of  the  latter  part  of 
the  18th  century  and  the  first  of  the  19th  century,  as  much 
space  is  devoted  to  pears  as  to  apples,  but  there  is  a  tone  of 
discouragement  in  the  discussion  of  pears,  owing  to  the  fact 
that  fire  blight  was  becoming  prevalent  and  wiping  out  the 
industry.  Although  a  great  many  varieties  of  pears  were 
described  at  that  time,  some  works  describing  as  many  as  seven 
hundred,  few  were  of  value  for  dessert  use,  the  pear  being  grown 
primarily  for  cooking  purposes  and  for  the  production  of  a 
cider  known  as  perry.  About  the  middle  of  the  19th  century, 
considerable  interest  was  aroused  in  the  pear  as  a  result  of  the 
introduction  of  certain  improved  varieties.  However,  from 
that  time  to  the  present,  fire  blight  has  been  more  or  less  prev- 
alent and  this,  together  with  various  other  conditions,  has 
discouraged  many  persons  from  attempting  to  raise  pears. 

2,  With  the  exception  of  a  few  states,  pear  growing  in  the 
United  States  has  been  on  the  decline  for  several  years.  In 
the  northern  tier  of  states,  including  certain  of  the  New  England 

COPYRIGHTED    BY    INTERNATIONAL    TEXTBOOK    COMPANY.       ALL    RIGHTS    RESERVED 

§8 


2  PEAR  CULTURE  §  8 

States,  New  York,  Michigan,  and  others,  the  pear-growing 
industry  seems  to  be  holding  its  own,  and,  in  some  cases,  is 
sHghtly  on  the  increase.  In  the  Southern  and  Middle  States 
the  industry  is  on  the  decline.  In  the  states  of  the  Pacific 
slope,  particularly  Oregon,  there  has  been  an  increase  in  the 
industry,  but  in  certain  of  the  Rocky  Mountain  States,  like 
Utah  and  Colorado,  a  decrease  has  occiured.  A  summarized 
statement  of  the  status  of  pear  growing  in  various  states 
arranged  alphabetically,  follows. 

Alabama:  Pear  growing  is  at  a  vStandstill  in  Alabama,  due 
chiefly  to  fire  blight.  The  principal  varieties  grown  in  the 
northern  part  of  the  state  are  Kieffer,  LeConte,  and  Garber; 
in  the  southern  part  of  the  state  Magnolia  and  Golden  Russet 
are  the  chief  varieties. 

Arizona:  In  Arizona  the  industry  is  probably  on  the  increase, 
although  fire  blight  has  been  very  serious  in  some  sections. 
The  principal  varieties  are  Bartlett,  Winter  Nelis,  and  Kieffer. 
Other  varieties  that  do  well  are  Clapp  Favorite,  Flemish, 
Howell,  LeConte,  Anjou,  and  Seckel. 

Arkansas:  Few  plantings  of  pears  are  being  made  in  Arkan- 
sas at  the  present  time  because  of  the  prevalence  of  fire  blight. 
Kieffer,  Garber,  and  similar  varieties  are  the  principal  ones 
grown. 

California:  For  years  California  has  been  the  leading  pear- 
growing  state.  From  the  early  eighties  to  the  beginning  of 
the  present  century  an  enormous  development  of  the  industry 
took  place.  During  the  last  decade,  however,  fire  blight  has 
done  serious  damage.  This  is  doubtless  due  to  the  fact  that 
growers  failed  to  take  proper  steps  toward  controlling  the 
disease.  More  difficulty  has  been  experienced  in  fighting  the 
blight  in  irrigated  regions  than  in  those  where  irrigation  is  not 
practiced. 

Colorado:  In  Colorado  pear  growing  is  confined  to  the  west- 
em  slope.  Fire  blight  is  very  severe,  rendering  the  industry 
unpopular.  The  principal  varieties  grown  are  Bartlett,  Kieffer, 
Anjou,  Flemish,  and  Seckel. 

Connecticut:  There  are  very  few  pear  orchards  in  the  state, 
the  total  acreage  of  commercial  orchards  being  estimated  at 


§  8  PEAR  CULTURE  3 

not  more  than  50  acres.  A  few  pears  are  grown  in  home  orch- 
ards. The  chief  varieties  grown  in  the  state  are  Bosc,  Anjou, 
and  Seckel. 

Delaware:  The  growing  of  Kieffer  pears  in  Delaware  is 
rather  extensive.  New  plantings  of  this  variety  are  being  made. 
Recently,  however,  fire  blight  has  attacked  the  Kieffers  and 
the  industry  seems  to  be  threatened.  There  are  a  few  plant- 
ings of  Bartlett,  Anjou,  and  Lawrence. 

Florida:  It  is  probable  that  ■  the  growing  of  pears  will 
never  become  a  commercial  industry  in  Florida.  Pear  growing 
in  the  state  is  on  the  decrease,  due  to  ravages  of  fire  blight. 
The  most  popular  varieties  grown  are  Kieffer,  Garber,  and 
Cincincis. 

Georgia:  The  industry  in  Georgia  has  never  been  profit- 
able. Many  orchards  have  been  ruined  by  fire  blight,  which 
seems  difficult  to  control.  The  Kieifer  is  the  chief  variety 
grown. 

Idaho:  The  industry  is  not  as  great  in  Idaho  as  it  was  for- 
merly, but  some  interest  is  being  manifested  at  the  present  time 
in  the  planting  of  varieties  such  as  Bartlett,  Anjou,  Winter 
Nelis,  Flemish,  and  Howell. 

Illinois:  The  industry  in  Illinois  is  thought  to  be  decreas- 
ing rapidly,  due  to  ravages  of  fire  blight.  The  Kieffer  is  still 
grown  commercially  in  some  sections. 

Indiana:  The  industry  is  on  the  decline  in  Indiana,  due  to 
prevalence  of  fire  blight.  The  most  popular  varieties  grown 
are  Bartlett,  Clapp  Favorite,  Tyson,  Flemish,  Sheldon,  and 
Seckel. 

Iowa:  Pears  are  little  grown  in  Iowa.  Knoxville  is  the  only 
place  in  the  state  where  the  market  is  supplied  by  a  local  orch- 
ard. A  few  growers  are  making  a  success  with  such  varieties 
as  Kieffer,  Bartlett,  and  Flemish. 

Kansas:  Pear  growing  is  at  a  standstill  in  Kansas.  The 
principal  varieties  grown  are  Kieffer  and  Garber. 

Kentucky:  Pears  in  small  quantities  are  grown  in  aU  sec- 
tions of  Kentucky,  but  there  are  very  few  commercial  orchards. 
Fire  blight  has  done  serious  damage  in  the  state.  The  prin- 
cipal varieties  are  Bartlett,  Kieffer,  Seckel,  and  Garber. 


4  PEAR  CULTURE  §  8 

Maine:  Pear  growing  in  Maine  practically  amounts  to 
nothing.  The  southwest  counties  grow  a  few  pears,  the  varieties 
being  Bartlett,  Clapp  Favorite,  Flemish,  Seckel,  and  Vermont 
Beauty. 

Maryland:  In  Maryland  pear  growing  is  not  increasing 
but  is  thought  to  be  holding  its  own.  A  considerable  acreage 
in  the  state  is  planted  to  Kieffers.  Other  varieties  grown  to  a 
limited  extent  are  Bartlett,  Anjou,  and  Clairgeau. 

Massachisetts:  In  Massachusetts  pear  growing  is  on  the 
increase  at  the  present  time,  but  has  decreased  greatly  in  the 
last  50  years.  The  industry  shows  some  signs  of  reviving. 
The  principal  varieties  grown  .commercially  are  Bartlett, 
Seckel,  Bosc,  and  Anjou. 

Michigan:  Pear  growing  is  thought  to  be  slightly  on  the 
increase  in  the  state.  The  Bartlett  is  the  principal  variety 
grown. 

Missouri:  Pear  growing  in  the  state  is  thought  to  be  at 
a  standstill.  The  Kieffer  is  the  principal  variety  grown, 
but  a  few  plantings  of  Garber,  Anjou,  and  Seckel  are 
found.  Recently,  it  is  said,  the  Lincoln  variety  has  come  into 
favor. 

Montana:  The  industry  amoimts  to  little  in  Montana. 
Fire  blight  has  been  serious. 

Nebraska:  Pear  growing  as  an  industry  is  not  considered 
important  in  Nebraska,  there  being  only  a  few  commercial 
orchards.  The  Kieffer  is  the  principal  variety  grown;  other 
varieties  sometimes  found  are  Bartlett,  Sheldon,  Seckel,  and 
Flemish. 

New  Mexico:  The  growing  of  pears  is  on  the  increase  in 
New  Mexico,  several  valleys  in  the  state  giving  promise  of 
producing  excellent  crops.  Fire  blight  has  never  been  serious. 
The  principal  variety  is  the  Bartlett. 

New  York:  According  to  a  report  of  the  Geneva  Experiment 
Station,  pear  growing  in  New  York  is  holding  its  own,  with 
possibly  a  slight  increase.  The  Cornell  Experiment  Station 
reports  that  the  industry  is  slightly  on  the  increase.  The  most 
popular  varieties  are  Bartlett,  Seckel,  Kieffer,  Clapp  Favorite, 
Sheldon,  Bosc,  Anjou,  Clairgeau,  and  Winter  Nelis. 


§  8  PEAR  CULTURE  5 

Oklahoma:  Little  is  known  of  the  true  status  of  pear  grow- 
ing in  the  state;  it  is  thought,  however,  that  comparatively 
few  pears  are  grown.  Fire  blight  is  the  most  serious  drawback. 
The  Kieffer  is  the  favorite  variety,  Garber  and  Seckel  being 
grown  sparingly. 

Oregon:  From  all  indications  Oregon  will  soon  supplant 
California  as  the  leading  pear-growing  state.  There  is  an 
enormous  area  and  a  splendid  opportunity  for  pear  growing 
in  the  Rogue  River,  the  Umqua,  and  the  Williamette  valleys, 
and  in  some  of  the  mountain  valleys  like  the  Hood  River,  it 
seems  probable  that  pear  culture  will  become  much  more  impor- 
tant than  it  has  been  in  the  past.  Pears  from  the  Rogue  River 
Valley  have  topped  the  markets  of  the  world  in.  both  quality 
and  selling  price.  Oregon  fruit  growers  are  being  advised  to 
specialize  to  some  extent  on  pear  growing. 

Pennsylvania:  Pear  growing  has  been  on  the  decrease  in 
Pennsylvania  for  several  years,  although  at  the  present  time 
there  are  indications  of  a  renewal  of  interest  in  the  industry. 
The  decrease  in  pear  growing  in  the  state  is  attributed  to  ravages 
of  fire  blight.  The  principal  cormnercial  varieties  are  Kieffer, 
Clapp  Favorite,  Bartlett,  Flemish,  Seckel,  Anjou,  and  Sheldon. 

RJtode  Island:  In  Rhode  Island  the  growing  of  pears  is 
confined  almost  entirely  to  home  orchards,  there  being  prac- 
tically no  commercial  orchards  in  the  state.  The  principal 
varieties  are  Clapp  Favorite,  Bartlett,  Sheldon,  and  Seckel. 

South  Carolina:  It  is  believed  that  pear  growing  is  on  the 
increase  in  South  Carolina  and  that  the  industry  may  become 
of  some  importance.  The  principal  varieties  grown  are  Bart- 
lett, Kieffer,  Seckel,  Garber,  and  LeConte,  Kieffer  being  the 
most  popular. 

South  Dakota:  Very  few  pears  are  raised  in  the  state.  The 
winds  are  too  severe  to  be  favorable  to  pear  growing  and  fire 
blight  is  prevalent. 

Tennessee:  There  is  practically  no  commercial  pear  grow- 
ing in  Tennessee.  A  few  Kieffers,  Garbers,  and  LeContes  are 
grown  in  home  orchards. 

Texas:    Very  few  pears  are  grown  in  the  old  agricultural 
districts  of  Texas.     At  one  time  the  industry  was  started  on 


0  PEAR  CULTURE  §  8 

an  enormous  scale,  but  most  of  the  plantings  have  disappeared. 
Kieffer  is  practicall}^  the  only  variety  grown,  although  some 
Chambers  and  Bartlett  plantings  are  found.  It  is  said  that  the 
plantings  of  the  Bartlett  are  doing  well. 

Utah:  Pear  growing  is  very  much  on  the  decline  in  Utah, 
due  to  fire  blight.  The  principal  varieties  are  Kieffer,  Flem- 
ish, Anjou,  Bartlett,  and  Clapp  Favorite. 

Vermont:  In  Vermont  pear  growing  dwindled  to  nothing 
about  20  years  ago,  due  to  the  fire  blight. 

Virginia:  The  pear-growing  industry  in  Virginia  is  prob- 
ably not  increasing.     Fire  blight  has  discouraged  the  growers. 

Washington:  It  is  thought  that  pear  growing  is  on  the  decline 
in  the  state.  The  principal  varieties  are  Bartlett,  Clairgeau, 
and  Winter  Nelis. 

West  Virginia:  Pear  growing  in  West  Virginia  amounts  to 
practically  nothing,  being  confined  to  a  few  home  orchards. 
It  is  estimated  that  at  least  95  per  cent,  of  the  pears  grown  in 
the  state  are  Kieffers.  Other  varieties  grown  on  a  smaU  scale 
are  Garber,  Seckel,  Clairgeau,  Bartlett,  Howell,  Lawrence, 
Mount  Veriion,  and  Danas  Hovey. 

Wisconsin:  There  are  few  if  any  commercial  pear  orchards 
in  the  state.  Kieffer,  Flemish,  and  Seckel  varieties  are  grown 
to  some  extent  in  home  orchards. 

Wyoming:  Pears  are  being  planted  freely  in  the  state  at  the 
present  time.  Bartlett,  Seckel,  and  Kieffer  are  the  most 
popular  varieties. 

3.  Owing  to  the  fact  that  pear  growing  is  declining  in  many 
.states  and  is  at  a  standstill  in  others,  it  is  obvious  that  there 
is  no  danger  of  overproduction.  Although  there  may  be  some 
seasons  when  pears  of  varieties  like  the  Bartlett  will  not  bring 
desirable  prices,  on  the  whole  the  price  will  doubtless  remain 
high.  It  is  believed  by  competent  authorities  that  for  the  next 
20  years,  at  least,  pears  will  be  one  of  the  most  profitable  finiits 
to  grow.  In  order  to  be  successful  in  the  business,  however, 
growers  must  exercise  care  in  the  selecting  of  orchard  sites  and 
in  managing  orchards  so  as  to  avoid  fire  blight.  These  points 
will  be  discussed  later. 


PEAR  CULTURE 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  PEARS 


BOTANICAL  CLASSIFICATION 

4.  Botanically,  the  pears  that  are  cultivated  in  North 
America  for  their  fruits  may  be  divided  into  two  groups:  the 
European  group  and  the  Oriental  group.  The  pears  of  these 
two  groups  are  so  widely  different  that  an  understanding  of 
each  is  necessary. 

5.  European  Group  of  Pears. — The  European  group  of 
pears  originated  from  the  native  pear  of  Europe,  Pyrus  com- 
munis. Many  varieties  of  this  group  had  their  origin  in  Amer- 
ica, but  they  are,  of  course,  seedlings  of  the  European  pear. 
Examples  of  these  are  the  Seckel,  Lawrence,  Howell,  Clapp 
Favorite,  Wilder,  Tyson,  and  others.  On  the  other  hand, 
many  varieties  of  the  European  group  have  been  imported 
directly  from  Europe.  Examples  of  these  are  the  Anjou,  the 
Angouleme,  and  the  Bartlett.  Pears  of  the  European  group 
have  been  grown  in  this  country  from  the  time  of  the  earliest 
settlements.  They  are  noted  for  their  productivity  and  fine 
quality;  the  trees,  however,  are  not  as  hardy  as  is  desired, 
being  very  susceptible  to  fire  blight. 

6.  Oriental  Group  of  Pears. — The  Oriental  group  of 
pears  originated  from  the  native  pear  of  China  and  Japan, 
commonly  called  the  sand  pear,  Pyrus  sinensis.  The  sand  pear 
was  introduced  into  America  many  years  after  the  European 
pear.  The  trees  of  this  stock  were  hard}^  and  productive, 
and  were  able  to  thrive  in  much  warmer  regions  than  those 
of  the  European  pear.  Owing  to  the  fact  that  the  fruit  was 
practically  worthless  for  eating  purposes,  however,  the  sand 
pear  was  never  extensively  grown  in  this  country. 

About  1870  a  satisfactory  cross  was  made  between  a  variety 
of  the  European  pear  and  the  sand  pear.     The  new  pear,  the 

248—27 


8  PEAR  CULTURE  §  8 

result  of  this  cross,  was  named  Kieffer,  in  honor  of  its  orig- 
inator, Peter  Kieffer,  of  Philadelphia,  Pennsylvania.  Later 
crosses  between  the  European  pear  and  the  sand  pear  resulted 
in  the  varieties  LeConte,  Garber,  and  others.  These  hybrids, 
owing  to  their  resistance  to  fire  blight  and  to  the  fact  that  they 
would  thrive  in  the  South  under  conditions  that  would  cause 
other  varieties  to  fail,  created  considerable  interest  in  pear 
growing.  Within  recent  years,  however,  it  has  been  discovered 
that  these  hybrid  varieties  are  not  as  resistant  to  fire  blight  as 
was  formerly  supposed. 

COMMERCIAL  CLASSIFICATION 

7.  From  the  standpoint  of  the  commercial  orchardist,  pears 
may  be  divided  into  two  classes :  dwarf  pears  and  standard  pears. 
This  classification  is  based  on  the  method  of  propagation. 

8.  Dwarf  Pears. — A  pear  tree  propagated  by  the  budding 
of  pear  wood  onto  quince  stock  is  known  as  a  dwarf  tree.  As 
a  rule,  the  Angers  quince  is  used  as  propagating  stock,  although 
in  some  sections  where  the  climate  is  mild  the  Portugese  quince 
has  proved  satisfactory.  Dwarf  trees  are  dwarfed  in  habit, 
are  productive,  and  come  into  bearing  at  an  early  age. 

In  the  case  of  some  varieties  of  pears,  there  are  important 
advantages  in  the  growing  of  the  trees  as  dwarfs.  High- 
quality  varieties  that  come  into  bearing  late,  such  as  the  Comice, 
Glout  Morceau,  Bosc,  Anjou,  Winter  Nelis,  and  particularly 
the  Angouleme,  bear  fruit  of  higher  quality  and  the  trees  come 
into  bearing  at  an  earlier  age  when  grown  as  dwarfs.  Also, 
in  the  case  of  varieties  that,  when  grown  in  the  usual  way, 
do  not  develop  their  ultimate  qualities  until  the  trees  have 
borne  several  crops  of  fruit,  the  growing  of  the  trees  as  dwarfs 
will  cause  the  latent  qualities  to  develop  at  once.  One  of  the 
most  important  advantages  of  the  dwarf  form  of  tree  is  its 
adaptability  for  use  as  a  filler  in  pear  orchards  of  standard 
trees. 

Dwarf  pears  have  been  grown  in  the  East  for  a  great  many 
years  but  only  recently  has  interest  in  dwarf  trees  been  aroused 
in  the  West.     At  the  present  time  progressive  growers  of. the 


10  PEAR  CULTURE  §  8 

Pacific  slope  are  experimenting  with  the  dwarf,  largely  because 
cf  its  value  as  a  filler.  In  general,  it  may  be  said  that  the  grow- 
ing of  dwarf  pears  is  of  rather  small  commercial  importance. 

9.  Standard  Pears. — A  pear  tree  propagated  by  the  bud- 
ding or  grafting  of  pear  wood  onto  pear  stock  is  known  as  a 
standard  tree.  Standard  pear  trees  are  longer  lived  than  dwarf 
trees,  attain  larger  size,  and  are  capable  of  yielding  heavier 
crops  of  fruit,  but  they  usually  come  into  bearing  later.  A 
large  percentage  of  the  commercial  orchards  at  the  present  time 
are  of  standard  trees,  although  there  are  a  number  of  dwarf 
orchards  in  the  East  and  a  few  in  the  West.  Owing  to  the  fact 
that  standard  trees  are  almost  exclusively  grown  in  most  sec- 
tions, the  following  discussion  of  pear  culture  willdeal  largel}^ 
with  this  form  of  tree.  A  young  pear  orchard  of  standard 
trees  is  shown  in  Fig.  1 ;  this  is  a  Western  orchard  and  is  furrowed 
for  irrigation. 

VARIETIES   OF  PEARS 

10.  Horticultural  reference  works  written  prior  to  a  half 
century  ago  contain  descriptions  of  hundreds  and  in  some  cases 
thousands  of  varieties  of  pears.  A  large  percentage  of  these 
varieties,  however,  were  suitable  only  for  culinary  purposes 
or  for  the  production  of  perry.  Many  have  become  extinct 
and  many  others  are  now  grown  on  such  a  small  scale  that  they 
are  practically  negligible.  A  discussion  of  such  varieties  is 
unnecessary;  consequently,  in  the  following  descriptions,  men- 
tion will  be  made  of  only  such  varieties  as  are  of  importance 
at  the  present  time.  The  name  used  in  each  case  is  the  one 
adopted  by  the  American  Pomological  Society,  the  recognized 
authority  on  nomenclature. 

11.  Varieties  of  the  European  Group. — The  following 
are  the  most  important  varieties  of  the  European  group  of 
pears : 

12.  The  Chambers,  or  Early  Harvest  of  Kentucky,  variety 
is  commonly  known  as  the  sugar  pear.  The  tree  is  an  upright 
grower.  The  fruit  is  small  and  roundish;  the  skin  is  of  a  yellow- 
ish color,  which  often  becomes  a  brown,  and  is  dotted  with 


§  8  PEAR  CULTURE  11 

green;  the  flesh  is  sweet  but  has  a  tendency  to  be  dry  unless 
the  fruit  is  picked  before  it  is  too  ripe.  The  Chambers  is 
one  of  the  earhest  pears  grown,  ripening  in  early  July  in  the 
latitude  of  Southern  New  York.  The  variety  is  desirable  for 
home  orchards  but  is  not  very  satisfactory  for  commercial 
planting,  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  fruit  will  keep  but  a  few 
days  after  being  picked. 

13.  The  Bloodgood  variety  of  pear  originated  on  Long 
Island,  New  York.  It  has  become  of  considerable  importance 
in  California.  The  tree  is  generally  hardy,  comes  into  bearing 
early,  and  produces  an  abundance  of  fruit.  The  fruit  is  of 
medium  size;  the  skin  is  yellow,  with  russet  dots  and  network 
markings ;  the  flesh  is  yellowish  white,  buttery,  melting,  and  of 
a  rich,  sugary,  aromatic  flavor.  The  Bloodgood  ripens  in 
midsummer.  Like  most  early  pears,  it  is  better  if  picked  early 
and  ripened  indoors.  The  variety  is  excellent  for  home  orch- 
ards, and  the  fruit,  on  account  of  its  earliness,  often  sells  well 
on  the  market,  although  it  is  not  very  attractive  in  appearance. 

14.  The  Glffard  is  a  popular  variety  in  Southern  Canada 
and  in  parts  of  New  York  and  in  the  New  England  States. 
The  tree  is  fairly  vigorous,  reasonably  productive,  and  healthy, 
but  tends  to  be  a  scraggly  grower.  The  fruit  is  m.edii.un  to 
large  in  size;  the  skin  is  of  a  light-green  color,  often  marbled 
and  dotted  with  red  on  the  exposed  side;  the  flesh  is  white, 
juicy,  melting,  and  of  a  vinous  flavor.  In  northern  states  the 
fruit  ripens  about  the  middle  of  August.  The  Giifard  is  con- 
sidered a  good  variety  for  home  markets. 

15.  The  Koonce  variety  originated  in  Illinois.  The  tree 
is  hardy,  productive,  and  healthy,  tending  to  bear  regularly. 
The  fruit  is  large  to  medium  in  size;  the  skin  is  greenish  yel- 
low in  color  and  has  small  russet  dots;  the  flesh  is  white,  often 
granular,  and  of  only  fair  quality.  In  the  latitude  of  Missouri 
the  fruit  ripens  in  midsummer;  in  northern  states  it  ripens 
in  October.  The  variety  is  especiall}^  valuable  for  use  as  stock 
in  double  working  the  pear  on  the  quince.  Koonce  pears  are 
used  for  culinary  purposes. 


12 


§  8  PEAR  CULTURE  13 

16.  The  Clapp  Favorite  variety  originated  in  Massa- 
chusetts. The  tree  is  a  strong  grower,  tending  to  be  rather 
upright  but  spreading  considerably  when  fruiting,  and  is  very 
productive.  The  fruit  is  large;  the  skin  is  a  pale  yellow,  mar- 
bled and  splashed  with  crimson  on  the  exposed  side,  and  thickly 
sprinkled  with  brown  dots;  the  flesh  is  white,  fine  grained, 
juicy,  sweet,  and  vinous  in  flavor.  -A  Clapp  Favorite  pear  is 
shown  in  Fig.  2.  The  fruit  ripens  about  10  days  before  that 
of  the  Bartlett;  it  should  be  picked  before  it  is  fully  ripe.  The 
Clapp  Favorite  is  one  of  the  best  varieties  for  home  orchards 
and  is  grown  extensively  in  commercial  orchards.  It  is  a 
valuable  pear  for  canning. 

17.;  The  Bartlett  pear  is  of  European  origin,  being  known 
in  Europe  as  the  Williams  Bon  Chretien.  It  is  the  leading 
commercial  variety,  is  in  demand  on  the  market,  and  is  one  of 
the  most  profitable  pears  to  grow.  The  fruit  is  large  and  varies 
somewhat  in  form ;  the  skin  is  thin  and  of  a  bright-yellow  color, 
often  blushed  on  the  exposed  side;  the  flesh  is  white,  juicy,  and 
of  a  very  good  quality.  A  Bartlett  pear  is  illustrated  in 
Fig.  3.  The  fruit  of  'this  variety  is  excellent  for  canning, 
preserving,  and  evaporating.  The  season  of  the  Bartlett  is 
midsummer. 

18.  The  Tyson  is  a  well-known  American  variety  that  is 
grown  extensively  in  home  orchards.  The  tree  is  upright, 
vigorous,  and  productive.  The  fruit  is  medium  in  size;  the 
skin,  when  the  fruit  is  fiilly  ripe,  is  yellow,  is  sometimes  rus- 
seted  on  one  side,  and  often  has  a  red  cheek  that  is  dotted  with 
brown;  the  flesh  is  a  yellowish  white  in  color,  juicy,  sweet, 
and  variable  in  texture.  The  season  of  this  variety  is  about 
the  same  as  that  of  the  Bartlett. 

19.  The  Flemish,  or  Flemish  Beauty,  variety  is  of  Euro- 
pean origin;  it  is  known  by  different  names  in  different  coun- . 
tries.  The  tree  is  vigorous  and  hardy  and  tends  to  come  into 
bearing  at  an  early  age,  after  which  it  usually  bears  heavy  crops. 
The  fruit  is  generally  large;  the  skin  is  of  a  yellow  color,  often 
marbled  and  covered  with  patches  of  light  russet;  the  flesh 
is  white,  juicy,  and   sweet,  and  is  of   a  very  good   quality. 


§  8  PEAR  CULTURE  15 

In  the  latitude  of    New  York   the   season  of  the  Flemish  is 
vSeptember. 

20.  The  Hardy  variety  is  a  summer  pear  in  some  localities, 
an  early  autumn  pear  in  others,  and  a  late  autimm  pear  in  still 
others.  The  tree  is  a  strong,  erect  grower,  and  has  an  abun- 
dance of  foliage.  The  fruit  is  large;  the  skin  is  of  a  greenish 
color,  often  russeted;  the  flesh  is  rich  in  flavor  and  dehcious. 
A  Hardy  pear  is  shown  in  Fig.  4.  The  fruit  of  this  variety  is 
well  received  in  some  markets. 

21.  The  Seckel  pear  was  originated  in  Pennsylvania. 
The  tree  is  generally  small  with  a  rounded  head;  it  is  likely  to 
be  a  slow  grower  but  is  fairly  hardy  and,  as  a  rule,  healthy. 
Often  the  tree  is  late  in  coming  into  bearing  but  when  once  in 
bearing  it  is  a  reliable  cropper,  provided  it  is  cared  for  properly. 
The  fruit  is  very  small,  but  what  it  lacks  in  size  it  m.akes  up 
in  quality;  the  skin  is  a  yellowish  brown,  with  a  russet-red 
cheek;  the  flesh  is  fine  grained,  sweet,  very  juicy,  melting,  and 
buttery,  being  excellent  for  eating  in  the  natural  condition 
or  for  pickling  and  spicing.  A  Seckel  pear  is  shown  in  Fig.  5. 
Because  of  the  small  size  of  the  fruit,  the  Seckel  does  not  meet 
with  much  demand  in  many  markets,  but  in  markets  where  it 
is  well  known  it  is  highly  appreciated  and  brings  good  prices. 
The  season  is  from  the  last  of  August  to  the  last  of  October. 

22.  The  Worden,  or  Warden's  Seckel,  variety  of  pear  is 
said  to  be  an  improvement  over  the  Seckel,  the  fruit  having 
better  keeping  qualities  and  being  handsomer.  The  tree  is 
fairly  hardy  and  productive  and  bears  fruit  in  clusters.  The 
fruit  is  of  medium  size;  the  skin  is  of  a  yellowish-brown  color, 
with  a  russet-red  cheek;  the  flesh  is  juicy  and  delicious.  The 
Worden  ripens  in  October  but  will  keep  until  December.  It 
is  used  for  dessert  purposes. 

23.  The  Lincoln  is  a  promising  new  variety  of  pear.  A 
great  many  pears  have  been  put  on  the  market  under  this 
name,  but  most  of  these  are  worthless.  The  tree,  it  is  claimed, 
is  resistant  to  blight.  The  fruit  is  said  to  be  large  and  of 
splendid  quality;  the  skin  is  a  clear  yellow,  with  a  red  cheek; 


^-'^xm 


16 


§  8  PEAR  CULTURE  17 

the  flesh  is  firm,  rich,  juicy,  and  of  high  flavor.  The  propa- 
gators claim  that  the  fruit  is  excellent  for  both  dessert  and 
canning  purposes.  Owing  to  lack  of  data  it  is  impossible  to 
state  whether  or  not  this  variety  justifies  the  claims  made 
for  it. 

24.  The  Howell  variety  of  pear  originated  in  Connecticut. 
The  tree  is  generally  a  vigorous  grower  of  upright  habit,  comes 
into  bearing  early,  and  when  of  bearing  age,  usually  bears 
annually.  The  fruit  is  large;  the  skin  is  of  a  light-yellow  color, 
often  almost  red  on  one  side;  the  flesh  is  white,  mellow,  and 
rather  juicy.  A  Howell  pear  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  6.  In  north- 
ern sections  the  Howell  matures  from  the  middle  of  September 
to  well  into  October.  The  variety  is  increasing  in  popularity 
on  the  Pacific  coast,  due  largely  to  the  handsome  appearance 
of  the  fruit  and  to  the  fact  that  the  trees  have  a  tendency 
to  be  annual  bearers.  The  Howell  is  a  dessert  and  market 
pear. 

25.  The  Verraont  Beauty  variety  of  pear  is  said  to  have 
been  originated  in  the  Lake  Champlain  district  of  Vermont. 
The  tree  is  hardy  and  vigorous.  The  fruit  is  of  medium  size 
and  tends  to  be  round;  the  skin  is  yellow,  often  tinged  with 
pink;  the  flesh  is  of  very  good  quality.  The  season  of  this 
variety  is  October.     The  Vermont  Beauty  is  a  dessert  pear. 

26.  The  Sheldon  pear  is  very  popular  in  some  sections 
of  the  eastern  part  of  the  country.  The  tree  is  an  upright, 
vigorous  grower,  generally  being  round  headed,  and  tends  to 
bear  early.  The  fruit  is  of  medium  size  and  roundish;  it  is 
often  affected  by  core  rot,  due,  no  doubt,  to  hanging  on  the  tree 
too  long.  The  skin  is  of  a  greenish-yellow  color,  covered  with 
a  thin  russet,  and  often  is  blushed  with  a  light  red  on  the  side 
exposed  to  the  sun;  the  flesh  is  sweetly  aromatic  in  flavor  and 
is  juicy.  A  Sheldon  pear  is  shown  in  Fig.  7.  In  the  region 
of  Southern  New  York  the  Sheldon  matures  in  October.  The 
variety  is  favorably  received  in  many  markets. 

27.  The  Ang'ouleme  variety,  known  also  as  the  Dtichess 
and  the  Duchess  d'  Angouleme,  is  of  French  origin.     The  variety 


§  8  PEAR  CULTURE  19 

is  grown  extensively  along  the  Atlantic  seaboard.  The  tree  is 
generally  vigorous;  and  the  wood  does  well  when  grafted  onto 
that  of  other  varieties  or  onto  that  of  the  quince.  The  fruit 
varies  in  size  from  large  to  very  large ;  the  skin  is  of  a  greenish- 
yellow  color,  and  is  more  or  less  streaked  and  spotted  with 
russet;  the  flesh  is  white,  juicy,  and  of  fine  flavor.  An  Angou- 
leme  pear  is  shown  in  Fig.  8.  In  the  latitude  of  Southern  New 
York  the  fiiiit  matures  in  October  and  November.  If  the 
Angouleme  is  properly  grown  it  is  an  attractive  pear  of  good 
quality,  but  it  must  be  properly  grown  to  be  profitable.  The 
pears  are  valuable  for  both  dessert  and  culinary  purposes. 

28.  The  Malines  pear,  often  called  the  Josephine  de 
M alines,  is  a  very  popular  variety  in  Europe.  The  tree  tends 
to  be  hardy  and  is  a  good  bearer.  The  fruit  is  medium  to  large 
in  size;  the  skin  is  yellow,  tinged  with  green  on  the  shaded  side 
and  blushed  with  red  on  the  exposed  side,  and  is  covered  with 
russet  dots ;  the  flesh  is  yellow  tinged  with  red,  melting,  sugary, 
juicy,  and  of  good  quality.  A  Malines  pear  is  shown  in  Fig.  9. 
The  fruit  matures  late  in  the  fall  and  has  extremely  good  keeping 
qualities. 

29.  The  Drouard  variety,  known  also  as  the  President 
Drotiard,  is  a  European  pear  that  has  been  grown  in  this  country 
for  some  time  but  only  recently  has  come  into  prominence  on 
the  Pacific  coast,  where  it  has  proved  to  be  a  heav^^  bearer, 
greatly  outyielding  the  Anjou  and  the  Comice.  The  tree  does 
especially  well  if  grown  as  a  dwarf,  bearing  heavily  the  fourth 
5^ear  after  planting.  The  fruit  is  large,  and  often  irregular 
in  form;  the  skin  is  yellow,  netted  and  washed  with  russet; 
the  flesh  is  creamy  white,  tender,  perfumed,  and  very  good. 
The  fruit  rarely  is  afflicted  with  core  rot.  In  northern  latitudes 
the  Drouard  is  a  fall  pear,  but  if  the  fruit  is  well  handled  it  can 
be  kept  until  February. 

30.  The  Louise  variety,  often  spoken  of  as  the  Louise 
Bonne  de  Jersey,  is  a  French  pear  that  is  well  kno\vn  in  the 
northern  part  of  the  United  States,  in  Ontario,  and  in  British 
Columbia.  The  tree  is  hardy,  vigorous,  upright,  and  pro- 
ductive on  rich  soil.     The  fruit  is  large;  the  skin,  which  is 


20  PEAR  CULTURE  §  8 

smooth,  is  of  a  greenish  color,  with  a  brownish-red  cheek  and 
numerous  red  and  brown  dots;  the  flesh  is  white,  fine  grained, 
juicy,  buttery,  aromatic,  and  of  good  flavor.  The  fruit  of  this 
variety  has  excellent  shipping  qualities.  In  northern  latitudes 
the  Louise  pear  ripens  in  Septem.ber  and  October. 

31.  The  Clair geau  variety  of  pear  is  noted  for  the  attract- 
iveness of  its  fruit.  In  fact,  the  mere  appearance  of  Clairgeau 
pears  often  makes  it  possible  to  sell  them  for  fancy  prices. 
The  Clairgeau  tree  is  erect,  is  a  vigorous  grower,  has  handsome 
foliage,  comes  into  bearing  early,  and  is  a  heavy  bearer.  The 
fruit  is  very  large,  although  different  pears  of  the  variety  often 
vary  considerably  in  size;  the  skin  is  very  yellow  and  often 
bears  cinnamon-colored  streaks  covered  with  russet  dots; 
the  flesh  varies  widely  in  quality,  being  very  poor  in  some  cases 
and  only  fairly  good  in  others.  In  Fig.  10  three  Clairgeau 
pears  are  shown  at  the  top  of  the  page.  In  the  latitude  of 
Southern  New  York  the  fruit  matures  in  late  fall. 

32.  The  Bosc  variety  of  pear  was  originated  in  Belgium, 
and,  unfortunately,  is  not  as  well  known  in  America  as  it  should 
be.  When  properly  grown  it  is  one  of  the  most  delicious  of 
pears,  but  its  unattractive  appearance  has  been  against  it. 
Recently,  however,  the  public  has  come  to  know  it  better  and 
the  demand  is  constantly  increasing.  The  tree  is  vigorous 
and  bears  regularly.  The  fruit  is  of  large  size  and  is  generall}^ 
tapering ;  the  skin  is  usually  of  a  dark-yellow  color  with  more  or 
less  green  often  overlaid  with  a  cinnamon  russet,  and  occasionally 
there  are  streaks  or  dots  of  red;  in  some  regions  the  color  becomes 
almost  an  entire  russet.  The  flesh  is  delicious,  being  melting, 
buttery,  and  very  rich.  In  Fig.-  10  four  Bosc  pears  are  shown 
at  the  bottom  of  the  page.  The  Bosc  keeps  well  in  cold  stor- 
age and  for  this  reason  it  is  becoming  one  of  the  leading  winter 
varieties.     In  northern  sections  the  fruit  matures  in  October. 

33.  The  Cornice  pear  is  a  French  variety  that  has  prac- 
tically topped  the  market  for  American-grown  pears,  ship- 
ments from  the  Rogue  River  Valley  of  Oregon  having  sold 
for  as  high  as  $10  a  box.  It  is  one  of  the  favorite  varieties  for 
the  Enghsh  Christmas  market  and  keeps  reasonably  well  in 


Fig.  10 


Fig.  11 


§8    24909 


§  8  PEAR  CULTURE  21 

cold  storage.  The  tree  is  an  upright  and  moderately  vigorous 
grower  when  young  but  later  becomes  broad  and  spreading; 
unfortunately  the  tree  comes  into  bearing  late  and  is  not  very 
productive.  The  fruit  is  usually  large ;  the  skin  is  of  a  greenish- 
yellow  color  that  is  often  russeted  and  on  the  side  most  exposed 
to  the  sun  the  color  is  often  a  shade  of  crimson;  the  flesh  is  of 
the  highest  quality,  being  white,  melting,  and  extremely  juic}^ 
Three  Comice  pears  are  shown  in  Fig.  11  at  the  top  of  the  page. 
In  northern  sections  the  fruit  matures  in  October  and 
November. 

34.  The  Anjoti  pear  is  becoming  one  of  the  most  popular 
varieties  grown  on  the  Pacific  coast  and  in  many  sections  of 
the  Eastern  States.  ■  The  tree  is  vigorous  and  has  an  open, 
round  head.  The  fruit  is  usually  large,  is  of  good  quality,  and 
can  be  kept  in  cold  storage  until  January  or  even  February; 
the  skin  is  greenish-yellow  in  color,  with  occasionally  a  trace  of 
russet  and  a  shade  of  crimson  on  the  side  most  exposed  to  the 
sun;  the  flesh  is  fine  grained,  juicy,  and  of  a  rich  flavor.  In 
Fig.  11  three  Anjou  pears  are  shown  at  the  bottom  of  the 
page.  In  northern  sections,  such  as  in  the  latitude  of  Chicago, 
the  fruit  matures  from  October  to  November. 

35.  The  Danas  Hovey  variety  of  pear,  sometimes  known 
as  the  Winter  Seckel,  was  originated  in  Massachusetts.  The 
tree  is  productive.  The  fruit  is  small;  the  vSkin  is  generally 
greenish  yellow;  the  flesh  is  yellow,  sweet,  juicy,  and  aromatic. 
This  is  a  good  variety  for  dessert  use.  The  season  is  about  the 
same  as  that  of  the  Comice. 

36.  The  Glout  Mqrceau  is  an  old  variety  of  French  origin 
that  was  at  one  time  grown  extensively  in  the  eastern  part  of 
America.  It  has  suffered  considerable  damage  from  blight 
and  scab  and  is  now  not  grown  as  much  as  it  was  formerly. 
The  variety,  however,  should  receive  attention.  It  is  highly 
prized  by  the  English  trade,  being  considered  equal  to  the 
Comice.  The  tree  is  usually  spreading,  and  although  it  does 
not  come  into  bearing  early,  it  usually  produces,  when  mature, 
regular  and  abundant  crops.  The  fruit  is  generally  large; 
the  skin  is  a  pale  greenish  yellow  in  color;  the  flesh  is  very  fine 


22 


§  8  PEAR  CULTURE  23 

grained,  white,  melting,  sugary,  and  extremely  delicious.      In 
northern  sections  the  fruit  ripens  in  October  and  November. 

37.  The  Biel  pear  is  a  well-known  and  popular  variety 
in  England.  The  tree  is  vigorous,  hardy,  and  productive. 
The  fruit  tends  to  be  large;  the  skin  is  of  a  light  green  color 
that  tends  to  become  yellowish  and  is  dotted  and  often  patched 
with  russet;  the  flesh  is  cream  colored,  generally  fine  in  tex- 
ture, buttery,  juicy,  and  of  an  aromatic  flavor.  In  northern 
regions  the  fruit  ripens  in  November  but  will  keep  until 
January. 

38.  The  Mount  Vernon  variety  of  pear  originated  in 
Massachusetts.  The  tree  is  productive.  The  fruit  is  medium 
to  large  in  size;  the  skin  is  yellow,  with  patches  of  cinnamon- 
colored  russet;  the  flesh  is  juicy,  melting,  vinous,  perfumed, 
and  of  very  good  quality.     The  Mount  Vernon  is  a  late  pear. 

39.  The  Forelle  variety  is  often  spoken  of  in  Europe  as 
the  Trout  pear.  The  variety  has  been  grown  in  this  country 
for  many  years  but  only  recently  has  attracted  much  atten- 
tion. It  is  doing  especially  well  in  the  Santa  Clara  region  of 
California  and  for  the  last  few  years  has  brought  fancy  prices. 
The  tree  is  hardy  and  bears  good  crops.  The  fruit  is  very 
attractive;  the  skin  is  of  a  greenish  color,  turning  to  yellow, 
and  is  washed  with  deep  red  and  speckled  with  crimson  dots ;  the 
flesh  is  white,  very  delicate,  melting,  and  rich.  The  Forelle 
needs  warm  soil  and  a  sunny  exposure.  The  season  is  late  fall 
but  the  fruit  can  be  kept  until  February. 

40.  The  Lawrence  pear  is  one  of  the  hardy  winter  varie- 
ties that  is  much  valued  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  United  States. 
The  tree  is  usually  a  good  bearer  and  makes  a  moderate  growth. 
The  fiiiit  is  medium  in  size;  the  skin  is  of  a  light -yellow  color, 
with  some  russet;  the  flesh  is  melting,  sweet,  aromatic,  and  juicy. 
A  Lawrence  pear  is  shown  in  Fig.  12.  In  the  latitude  of 
Southern  New  York  the  fruit  ripens  in  December. 

41.  The  Columbia  pear  is  grown  to  some  extent  in  Cali- 
fornia and  in  parts  of  the  South.  The  tree  is  a  handsome 
grower  and  a  good  bearer.     The  fruit  is  large;  the  skin  is  of  a 

248—28 


§  8  PEAR  CULTURE  25 

greenish-yellow  color;  the  flesh  is  of  good  quality.     A  Columbia 
pear  is  shown  in  Fig.  13.     This  is  a  late  winter  variety. 

42.  The  Winter  Nelis  is  perhaps  the  most  popular  of  the 
winter  varieties.  The  tree  often  comes  into  bearing  rather 
late.  The  fruit  often  tends  to  be  rather  small  but  when  well 
grown  it  is  of  superb  quality.  The  pears  are  yellow  in  color 
but  may  have  patches  of  russet ;  the  flesh,  when  the  fruit  is  well 
grown,  is  very  fine  grained,  buttery,  sweet,  juicy,  and  of  good 
quality.  A  Winter  Nelis  pear  is  shown  in  Fig.  14.  The  pears 
of  this  variety  keep  well  if  properly  handled,  and  often  bring 
high  prices.  The  Winter  Nelis  should  be  planted  on  deep, 
rich  soil  and  the  crops  should  be  thinned  well. 

43.  The  Patrick  Barry  is  considered  a  desirable  variety 
by  some  persons  and  by  others  it  is  considered  too  inferior  to 
grow.  The  fruit  is  of  exceptionally  good  keeping  quality, 
specimens  having  been  kept  for  more  than  a  3^ear.  The  variety 
has  displaced  the  Winter  Nelis  in  some  regions.  The  tree 
comes  into  bearing  early  and  tends  to  bear  annually.  The 
fruit  is  rather  large;  the  skin  varies  from  almost  a  complete 
russet  to  a  rich  golden  russet  on  a  deep  ^^ellow;  the  flesh  is 
usually  very  juicy  and  melting,  but  is  extremely  variable  in 
quality.     The  Patrick  Barry  matures  in  late  winter. 

44.  The  Easter  Beurre  variety  of  pear  is  grown  somewhat 
extensively  on  the  Pacific  coast,  particularly  in  California. 
The  tree  is  a  moderate  grower,  has  a  round  head,  and,  under 
favorable  conditions,  is  a  good  bearer;  it  must,  however,  be 
grown  on  rich  soil.  The  fruit  is  large ;  the  skin  is  usually  yellow, 
which  may  be  somewhat  russeted,  and  often  brownish  on  one 
side;  the  flesh  is  fine,  white,  sweet,  and  juicy.  The  Easter 
Beurre  is  a  late  winter  variety;  the  fruit  often  keeps  until  April. 

45.  Varieties  of  the  Oriental  Group. — The  following 
are  the  most  important  varieties  of  the  Oriental  group  of  pears : 

46.  The  Kieffer  pear  is  a  hybrid  that  is  supposed  to  be  a 
cross  between  the  sand  pear  and  some  European  variety  such 
as  the  Bartlett.  It  is  the  most  popular  variety  in  the  South 
and  in  parts  of  the  Middle  West,  and  is  increasing  in  popularity 


§  8  PEAR  CULTURE  27 

elsewhere,  particularly  for  cooking  purposes.  The  Kieffer  has 
always  been  noted  for  its  resistance  to  fire  blight.  The  tree  is 
vigorous  and  very  productive.  The  fruit  keeps  and  ships  well, 
and  will  probably  stand  rougher  handling  than  that  of  most 
other  common  varieties.  It  is  an  inferior  pear  for  eating  as 
it  comes  from  the  tree  but  is  of  merit  for  canning  and  preserv- 
ing. The  fruit  is  from  medium  to  large  in  size;  the  skin  is 
yellowish  in  color  with  a  tinge  of  red  on  the  exposed  side,  and  is 
often  sprinkled  with  small  russet  dots;  the  flesh  is  coarse  and 
juicy.  A  Kieffer  pear  is  shown  in  Fig.  15.  In  the  latitude 
of  Southern  New  York  the  fruit  ripens  in  October  and  Novem- 
ber. The  Kieffer  is  not  a  valuable  variety  north  of  the  43d 
parallel  of  north  latitude. 

47.  The  LeConte  is  another  hybrid  variety  that  was 
originated  by  a  cross  of  the  sand  pear  and  the  European  pear. 
The  tree  is,  as  a  rule,  a  vigorous  grower,  prolific,  and  hardy. 
The  fruit  is  large;  the  skin  is  yellowish  in  color;  the  flesh,  like 
that  of  the  Kieffer,  is  of  poor  quality.  A  LeConte  pear  is 
shown  in  Fig.  16.  In  the  latitude  of  Southern  New  York  the 
fruit  matures  in  October  and  November.  The  LeConte  suc- 
ceeds best  in  the  extreme  southern  part  of  the  United  States. 

48.  The  Garber  is  a  pear  of  the  Kieffer  type,  but  its  season 
is  much  earlier  than  that  of  the  Kieffer.  The  tree  is  fairly  free 
from  blight,  is  hardy,  healthy,  and  productive.  The  fruit  is 
large;  the  skin  is  a  beautiful  bright  yellow  in  color;  the  flesh 
is  of  poor  quality.     A  Garber  pear  is  shown  in  Fig.  17. 

49.  The  Cincincis  is  an  oriental  variety  of  the  Kieffer 
type  that  succeeds  as  far  south  as  Southern  Florida.  The  tree 
is  a  heavy  bearer.  The  fruit  is  large  and  rough  in  appearance; 
it  is  much  like  the  Kieffer  in  quality.  The  pears  are  used  for 
culinary  purposes. 

50.  The  Suwanee  is  a  comparatively  new  variety  that  was 
originated  in  Southern  Georgia.  It  is  said  to  be  very  resistant 
to  fire  blight.  The  tree  bears  annually  and  is  a  heavy  yielder. 
The  fruit  is  large  and  of  good  color.  This  variety  does  well 
in  Florida. 


28  PEAR  CULTURE  §  8 

51.  The  Golden  Russet,  or  Japan  Golden  Russet,  variety 
is  a  hybrid  that  stands  heat  and  drouth  well.  The  tree  is  a 
vigorous  grower,  strong,  free  from  blight,  and  very  produc- 
tive. The  fruit  is  large,  nearly  round  and  very  firm;  the  skin  is 
entirely  covered  with  russet;  the  flesh  is  firm  and  juicy.  The 
pears  are  used  largely  for  cooking  and  canning. 


PEAR  PESTS  AND  INJURIES 


DISEASES 

52.  There  are  very  few  diseases  that  affect  the  pear  seri- 
ously. One,  however,  the  fire  blight,  is  one  of  the  most 
destructive  and  serious  plant  diseases  found  in  America  at  the 
present  time.  In  some  sections  the  pear  is  seriously  affected 
by  pear  scab,  a  disease  that  closely  resembles  apple  scab.  Also, 
at  times,  a  disease  known  as  pear-leaf  blight  is  troublesome. 
Occasionally,  pear-leaf  spot,  rust,  crown  gall,  and  brown  rot  cause 
damage.  With  the  exception  of  fire  blight,  however,  the 
diseases  of  the  pear  are  not  particularly  formidable. 

53.  Fire  Blight. — The  fire-blight  disease  of  the  pear  has 
for  many  years  been  a  terrible  menace  to  the  pear-growing 
industry,  and  besides,  has  destroyed  many  quince  and  apple 
trees.  The  name  of  this  disease  is  well  chosen,  as  an  affected 
tree,  with  its  shriveled  branches  and  shrunken,  blackened 
twigs,  has  the  appearance  of  having  been  injured  by  fire.  The 
disease  is  caused  by  bacteria,  consequently  spraying  is  of  no 
value  whatever  in  combating  it. 

Generally,  the  first  warning  that  a  grower  has  of  the  presence 
of  fire  blight  in  his  orchard  is  the  wilting  of  the  twigs  on  one  or 
more  of  the  trees.  Often  but  one  or  two  twigs  on  a  tree  are 
affected  at  first,  and  in  this  case  the  disease  is  not  very  con- 
spicuous. Soon  after  the  twigs  wilt  the  foliage  turns  black 
and  the  wood  dies. 

In  Fig.  18  is  illustrated  the  appearance  of  blight-infected 
twigs.  In  some  instances  the  attack  may  be  light,  the  blight 
going  no  farther  than  the  twigs  and  spurs;  in  other  instances 


PEAR  CULTURE 


29 


it  may  run  rapidly  down  the  trees  to  the  main  branches  and 
even  to  the  roots.  If  the  disease  is  confined  to  the  twigs,  spurs, 
and  small  branches,  it  often  dies  out  without  causing  much 
damage;  if,  however,  the  large  branches  and  the  trurik  are 
affected,  the  tree  may  die  in  a  short  time  or  the  disease  may 
remain  as  what  is  called  hold-over  blight. 

If  a  grower  will  go  through  his  orchard  during  the  dormant 
season  he  should  be  able  to  find  all  patches  of  wood  affected  with 
hold-over  blight.  When  the  dis- 
ease is  in  an  active  state,  as  it  is  in 
hold-over  blight,  it  can  be  detected 
to  a  certain  degree  by  the  discolora- 
tion of  the  wood,  which  is  generally 
somewhat  reddish  in  color.  All 
suspected  patches  should  be  cut  into 
and  if  the  inner  bark  is  of  a  bright 
reddish  color  and  is  soggy  with 
sticky  sap,  the  grower  shordd  con- 
sider this  evidence  as  being  suffi- 
ciently conclusive  to  warrant  the 
destroying  of  the  affected  wood.  If 
the  symptoms  are  not  very  pro- 
nounced it  is  advisable  for  the 
grower  to  consult  some  person  who 
has  had  experience  with  the  disease. 

In  early  spring,  patches  of  wood 
affected  with  hold-over  blight  exude 
sap,  as  shown  in  Fig.  19.  This  sap 
is  teeming  with  the  causal  bacteria. 
Insects,  such  as  bees  and  wasps,  are  attracted  by  the  sweet 
juice,  which  adheres  to  them,  and  consequently  become  agents 
of  infection.  The  insects  carry  the  bacteria  to  blossoms  on 
other  trees  and  often  to  wounds  on  the  branches  and  trunks, 
and  thus  spread  the  disease. 

The  susceptibility  of  a  pear  tree  to  fire  blight  is  largely 
influenced  by  external  conditions.  A  general  statement  may 
be  made  that  any  condition  that  causes  a  tree  to  make  a  very 
rapid  growth,  resulting  in  tender  shoots,  favors  the  development 


Fig.  is 


30 


PEAR  CULTURE 


of  the  disease.  From  this  it  may  be  deduced  that  the  pear 
shoiild  not  be  planted  on  rich  soil,  that  it  should  not  be  over- 
stimulated  with  nitrogenous  fertilizers,  and  that  the  amount 
and  time  of  cultivation  should  be  governed  by  the  rate  of  growth 
of  the  trees.  Also,  varieties  differ  considerably  in  their  suscep- 
tibility to  fire  blight.  The  Kieffer,  LeConte,  Garber,  Winter 
Nelis,  and  Angouleme  are  less  susceptible  than  the  Flemish, 
Bartlett,  Seckel,  and  Clapp  Favorite.  In  general,  varieties  of 
the  Oriental  group  are  much  more  resistant  to  fire  blight  than 
those  of  the  European  group.  At  one  time  it  was  thought  that 
the  Kieffer  was  absolutely  resistant,  but  this  has  been  found 

to  be  erroneous. 

It  has  been  conclusively 
demonstrated  that  where  cli- 
matic conditions  are  favorable 
and  growers  are  willing  to 
combat  the  disease  by  proper 
methods,  it  is  possible  to  hold 
fire  blight  in  check.  Orchards 
must  be  inspected  frequently, 
both  in  summer  and  in  winter, 
and  all  affected  wood  must  be 
cut  out  and  destroyed.  In 
cutting  out  blighted  wood,  the 
cut  must  be  made  considerably 
below  the  point  of  attack. 
Before  each  cut  is  made  the  pruning  implement  must  be  steril- 
ized with  a  strong  antiseptic;  a  l-to-1,000  solution  of  corro- 
sive sublimate,  or  bichloride  of  mercm-y,  is  generally  used.  A 
convenient  method  of  applying  the  antiseptic  is  to  wipe  the 
implements  with  a  sponge  soaked  in  the  solution.  This  steril- 
izing is  absolutely  necessary,  as  otherwise  bacteria  may  be 
carried  from  infected  wood  to  wood  that  is  not  infected. 
Great  effort  should  be  made  to  cut  out  all  patches  of  wood 
affected  with  hold-over  bUght,  so  that  there  will  be  no  exuda- 
tion of  infected  sap  in  the  spring. 

Occasionally,  pear  trees  will  bear  scattering  blossoms  in  the 
summer,  especially  if  they  have  been  injured  by  frosts  in  the 


Fig.  19. 


8 


PEAR  CULTURE 


31 


spring.  These  late  blossoms  are  a  disadvantage  if  fire  blight  is 
prevalent  in  the  locality,  as  they  will  be  visited  by  insects  that 
bear  the  bacteria  and  thus  will  become  centers  of  infection. 
When  fruit  buds  appear  in  summer  they  should  be  immediately 
removed. 

As  has  already  been  stated,  fire  blight  is  much  more  preva- 
lent where  the  trees  have  made  too  rapid  growth.  For 
this  reason,  care  must  be  exercised  in  the  selection  of  an 
orchard  site  and  in  the  cultivating,  fertilizing,  and  irrigating 
of  the  trees.  These  points  will  be  discussed  in  the  subsequent 
Section. 


54.  Pear  Scab.- — The  fungous  disease  known  as  pear  scab 
is  often  very  troublesome  in  regions  that  are  subject  to  warm, 
humid  conditions  in  late  spring  and 
early  summer.  It  seems  to  be  more 
prevalent,  too,  in  the  Eastern  States 
than  on  the  Pacific  coast .  Pear  scab 
is  so  similar  to  apple  scab,  which 
has  already  been  described  in  a  pre- 
vious Section,  that  a  discussion  of 
its  life  history  and  characteristics  is 
not  necessary.  It  often  causes 
much  of  the  fruit  to  fall  and  the 
affected  pears  that  remain  on  the 
tree  are  scabby  and  much  deformed. 
Fig.  20  illustrates  the  appearance  of  pears  affected  with  the 
disease. 

Plant  pathologists  differ  as  to  the  treatment  that  should  be 
given  to  prevent  pear  scab.  Some  recommend  winter  spraying 
and  others  consider  this  unnecessary.  In  general,  however, 
the  following  synopsis  of  the  spraying  required  is  agreed  on 
by  all: 

1.  Just  as  the  fruit  buds  are  showing  a  pinkish  color,  but 
before  they  open,  spray  with  Bordeaux  mixture  or  lime-sulphur 
solution.  If  Bordeaux  mixture  is  used,  it  should  be  of  the 
3-3-50  formula;  if  lime-sulphur  solution  is  used,  it  should  be 
of  the  summer  strength. 


Fig.  20 


32 


PEAR  CULTURE 


2.  When  most  of  the  petals  have  dropped,  spray  again  with 
either  Bordeaiix  mixture  or  lime-sulphur  solution  as  recom- 
mended in  paragraph  1. 

3.  From  10  days  to  2  weeks  later  spray  again. 

4.  From  10  days  to  2  weeks  later  spray  again. 

55.  Pear-Leaf  Blight. — The  fungous  disease  known  as 
pear-leaf  blight  attacks  the  foliage  and  sometimes  the  fruit  of 
the  pear  and  the  quince.  Occasionally  it  becomes  so  bad  that 
it  defoliates  the  trees,  or  at  least  weakens  them  so  that  the 
foliage  turns  yellow.  At  times  the  disease  becomes  very  bad 
in  nurseries;  at  one  time  it  discouraged  American  nurserymen 
from  propagating  the  pear. 

A  characteristic  symptom  of  pear-leaf  blight  is  the  spotted 
appearance  of  the  leaves.     The  spots,  which  are  particularly 

evident  on  the  upper 
surface  of  the  leaves, 
have  a  reddish  center 
with  an  outer  border 
of  a  dark  shade.  In 
case  the  blight  attacks 
the  fruit,  the  reddish 
spots  appear  and 
usually  crack.  It 
should  be  understood, 
however,  that  spots 
on  the  leaves  and  cracks  in  the  fruit  do  not  always  indicate 
leaf  blight ;  other  diseases  have  much  the  same  symptoms. 

The  spraying  treatment  already  recommended  for  pear  scab 
will  usually  hold  the  pear-leaf  blight  in  check. 

56.  Pear-Leaf  Spot. — The  fungous  disease  known  as  pear- 
leaf  spot  occurs  principally  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  United 
States.  It  attacks  the  leaves  of  orchard  and  nursery  trees, 
often  causing  premature  defoliation.  Affected  trees  are  not 
seriously  injured  unless  the  leaves  fall,  in  which  case  they  may 
show  a  reduction  in  vigor  the  next  season.  The  spots  on  the 
leaves  may  readily  be  distinguished  from  those  of  the  leaf 
blight  by  their  color.     Three  fairly  well  differentiated  zones  of 


Fig.  21 


§  8  PEAR  CULTURE  33 

color  may  usually  be  seen  in  a  spot:  the  center  zone  is  ashen 
gray,  the  surrounding  zone  is  brown,  and  the  outer  zone  is  pur- 
plish. These  color  details  are  lost  in  old  leaves,  but  they  are, 
as  a  rule,  prominent  in  fresh  ones.  The  general  appearance 
of  an  affected  leaf  is  shown  in  Fig.  21.  Some  varieties,  lilce  the 
Clairgeau,  Anjou,  Bosc,  and  Bartlett,  suffer  more  from  the 
disease  than  varieties  like  the  Winter  Nelis,  Kieffer,  and 
Angouleme. 

The  spraying  already  recommended  for  pear  scab  is  effective 
in  preventing  the  leaf-spot  disease. 

57.  Rust. — The  rust  that  attacks  the  pear  is  very  similar 
to  the  rust  of  the  apple,  although  it  is,  as  a  rule,  less  injurious. 
Two  stages  of  the  disease  occur :  a  summer  stage  and  a  winter 
stage.  The  summer  stage  produces  the  rust  found  on  the 
leaves  of  the  pear  and  the  winter  stage  causes  the  familiar 
cedar  apple  of  the  cedar  tree.  The  remedy,  as  in  the  case  of 
the  apple,  is  to  remove  all  red  cedar  trees  from  the  neighborhood 
of  the  orchard,  thus  eliminating  the  source  of  infection.  If 
this  is  impossible,  the  trees  should  be  sprayed  with  Bordeaux 
mixture  immediately  after  the  early  spring  rains,  as  recom- 
mended in  the  case  of  the  apple. 

58.  Crown  Gall  and  Brown  Rot. — The  pear,  like  the 
apple,  is  attacked  by  crown  gall  and  brown  rot.  Inasmuch 
as  these  diseases  have  already  been  described  in  a  previous 
Section,  further  discussion  is  unnecessary. 


INSECTS 


59.  Most  of  the  common  insects  that  attack  the  pear  also 
attack  other  fruits  such  as  the  apple,  peach,  and  pltmi.  Some 
of  these  insects  have  already  been  described  in  previous  Sections, 
consequently  a  full  discussion  of  them  is  unnecessary  here. 
The  most  important  insect  enemies  of  the  pear  are:  the  pear 
psylla,  pear  thrips,  the  leaf-blister  mite,  the  pear  slug,  the  San 
Jose  scale,  the  coddling  moth,  the  green  apple  aphis,  the  fruit- 
tree  hark  beetle,  the  oyster-shell  scale,  the  scurfy  scale,  and  borers. 


34 


PEAR  CULTURE 


8 


60.  Pear  Psylla. — In  some  parts  of  the  United  States, 
especially  in  New  York  State,  an  insect  known  as  the  pear 
psylla  has  become  a  serious  pest  in  pear  orchards.  The  presence 
of  the  psylla  in  injurious  numbers  on  a  tree  is  usually  indicated 
by  an  abundance  of  a  waterish,  sticky  liquid,  called  honey  dew, 
at  the  axils  of  the  leaves  and  fruits.  In  New  York  State  this 
may  be  first  detected  during  the  latter  part  of  May  or  early 
in  June.  This  liquid  later  becomes  covered  with  a  black  mold, 
which  gives  the  trees  a  blackish,  unsightly  appearance.  Certain 
ants  and  flies  are  very  fond  of  the  honey  dew,  and  often  congre- 
gate in  large  numbers  on  infested  trees.  The  presence  of  these 
insects  on  a  pear  tree  should  arouse  the  suspicions  of  an 
orchardist  and  should  lead  to  a  close  inspection  of  the  trees. 

The  adult  psylla  is  an  active  four-winged  insect,  measiu-ing 
about  To  inch  in  length.     It  has  been  compared  to  a  miniature 

seventeen-year  locust. 
An  adult  psylla  is 
shown  in  Fig.  22  (a). 
The  winter  adiilts  ap- 
pear early  in  spring 
and  deposit  eggs  for 
the  first  brood  in  pro- 
tected places  in  the 
bark.  The  eggs  hatch 
in  a  few  days,  and  the 
young  larvas,  or 
nymphs,  one  of  which 
is  shown  in  Fig.  22  (b),  at  once  begin  to  suck  the  juices  from 
the  young  leaves  and  twigs.  A  favorite  place  for  the  young 
larvas  is  in  the  axils  of  the  leaves  at  the  base  of  the  fruit 
stems.  Two  or  three  da^^s  after  hatching,  the  larvas  cover 
themselves  with  honey  dew,  which  finally  becomes  so  abun- 
dant that  it  besmears  the  leaves  and  fruit.  The  extent  of  the 
injury  done  in  this  way  varies,  of  course,  with  the  number  of 
the  larvas.  When  the  larvas  are  very  nimierous  they  take  so 
much  nourishment  from  the  trees  that  the  new  growth  is 
seriously  checked.  The  whole  tree  assumes  a  stunted,  un- 
healthy appearance.     As   a   result,   the   fruit   crop   is  greatly 


Fig.  22 


§  8  PEAR  CULTURE  35 

lessened  and  in  some  cases  the  trees  are  killed.     Trees  weak- 
ened by  the  psylla  often  fail  to  survive  the  winter. 

The  following  control  measures  for  the  psylla  have  been 
recommended  by  the  New  York  Agricultural  Experiment 
Station : 

1.  Practice  clean  culture  in  the  orchard  so  that  there  will  be 
no  accumulations  of  weeds  to  serve  as  wintering  places. 

2.  Remove  all  rough  bark  in  order  to  prevent  the  adults 
from  wintering  on  the  trees  and  to  render  them  more  exposed 
to  spraying  mixtures.  Bark  is  most  easily  detached  imme- 
diately following  a  wet  period.  Care  should  be  exercised  not 
to  cut  into  live  tissue. 

3.  Spray  thoroughly  to  kill  the  adults  with  Blackleaf  40,  a 
commercial  nicotine  preparation,  using  f  pint  to  100  gallons  of 
water,  and  3  pounds  of  soap;  the  spraying  should  be  done 
preferably  during  a  warm  period  in  November  or  December, 
or  during  March  or  early  April.  Select  a  day  when  the  mixture 
will  not  freeze  on  the  trees.  For  spring  spraying,  some  growers 
prefer  a  miscible  oil,  using  1  gallon  diluted  with  15  gallons 
of  water. 

4.  Spray  the  trees  thoroughly  with  lime-sulphur  mixture  of 
the  winter  strength  to  destroy  the  eggs.  This  treatment  should 
be  made  during  the  latter  part  of  April  or  early  in  May,  or  just 
before  the  blossom  clusters  open. 

5.  Spray  the  trees  thoroughly  just  after  the  blossoms  drop 
to  kill  the  newly-hatched  nymphs,  using  Blackleaf  40  as  in 
paragraph  3,  and  3  pounds  of  soap  or  kerosene  emulsion  diluted 
with  8  parts  of  water.  Direct  the  spray  into  the  axils  of  the 
leaves  and  fruits  and  wet  both  surfaces  of  the  leaves. 

If  the  work  is  well  done  it  is  not  necessary  to  carrj^  out  all 
of  these  measures  each  year.  If  the  trees  have  been  carefully 
scraped  a  combination  of  the  treatment  recommended  in 
paragraphs  3  and  4  or  3  and  5  should  be  sufficient.  Some 
growers  have  entirely  controlled  the  psylla  with  only  the  treat- 
ment recommended  in  paragraph  3. 

61.  Pear  Thrips.  —  In  California,  particular^  in  Santa 
Clara,    Contra    Costa,    Solano,    Alam.eda,    Yolo,    Sacramento, 


36 


PEAR  CULTURE 


Napa,  and  Sonoma  counties,  the  pear  thrips  is  at  present  the 
most  important  insect  pest  with  which  pear  growers  have  to 
contend.  This  insect  attacks  not  only  the  pear  but  also  all 
other  deciduous  fruits.  The  extent  of  damage  done  by  the 
thrips  in  recent  years  has  been  so  enormous  that  special  agents 
have  been  detailed  by  the  United  States  Department  of  Agri- 
culture to  study  the  insect. 

Injury  by  the  thrips  is  caused  by  the  feeding  of  the  adults 
on  the  developing  buds  and  early  blossoms;  by  the  deposition 
of  eggs  in  the  fruit  stems,  leaf  stems,  and  newly  formed  fruit; 
and  by  the  feeding  of  the  larvas  in  the  blossoms  and  on  the 
young   fruits   and   foliage.     On   pears   the   greatest   injury   is 


Fig.  23 

produced  by  the  adults,  which  often  prevent  the  trees  from 
blooming.  The  feeding  injury  is  not  produced  by  a  biting  or 
chewing  process.  By  rasping  the  tender  surfaces  of  the  develop- 
ing fruit  buds  and  the  young  fruits  with  their  hardened  mouth 
parts,  the  thrips  rupture  the  skin,  causing  an  exudation  of  sap, 
which  is  often  followed  by  more  or  less  fermentation,  especially 
before  blooming. 

The  adults,  one  of  which  is  shown  greatly  enlarged  in  Fig.  23, 
first  appear  on  the  trees  about  the  middle  of  February  and 
emergence  from  the  ground  continues  until  early  April.  By 
the  time  the  fruit  buds  have  swollen  sufficiently  to  separate 
the  bud  scales  slightly  at  the  tip,  the  adults  force  their  way 
within,  feeding  on  the  tenderest  parts  inside  the  buds.     When 


§  8  PEAR  CULTURE  37 

the  thrips  are  present  in  sufficient  numbers  the  buds  are  com- 
pletely destroyed  and  the  trees  fail  to  bloom.  As  soon  as  the 
first  leaf  vSurfaces  or  fruit  stems  are  exposed  egg  laying  usually 
begins.  The  first  eggs  are  deposited  about  the  last  of  February 
and  oviposition  continues  until  near  the  middle  of  April. 
Most  of  the  eggs  are  deposited  just  under  the  epidermis  in  the 
fruit  stems,  in  young  fruit,  and  in  leaf  stems.  The  eggs  hatch 
in  from  5  to  17  days,  the  average  time  being  about  8  days. 
By  the  time  the  trees  are  breaking  into  full  bloom  the  adults 
have  done  most  of  the  damage  caused  by  their  feeding,  ovi- 
position is  at  its  height,  and  many  of  the  earlier-appearing 
adults  are  dying  off  and  larvas  are  beginning  to  appear  in 
numbers.  The  first  larvas  can  usually  be  found  about  March  20, 
and  are  in  maximum  numbers  on  the  trees,  feeding  on  the  small 
fruit  and  young  foliage,  from  the  first  to  the  middle  of  April. 
Reaching  their  full  development,  the  larvas  drop  from  the 
trees,  of  their  own  accord  or  with  falling  calyxes,  or  are  blown 
by  wind  or  knocked  off  by  rain.  After  the  middle  of  April 
the  number  on  the  trees  diminishes  rapidly,  and  by  the  last  of 
April  all  the  larvas  are  off  the  trees  and  in  the  ground.  Here 
they  work  do-wn  into  the  first  3  or  4  inches  of  hard  soil  below 
the  loose  surface  mulch  and  construct  a  tiny  cell,  where  they 
remain  until  the  following  spring.  Pupation  takes  place  in  the 
ground  and  the  insects  emerge  as  adults. 

A  great  deal  of  experimental  work  has  been  done  with  a  view 
to  finding  an  effective  means  of  controlling  the  pear  thrips, 
but  as  yet  no  entirely  satisfactory  method  has  been  discovered. 
In  view  of  the  fact  that  new  information  concerning  this  insect 
is  continually  being  brought  to  light  and  that  any  recommen- 
dation made  for  its  control  would  likely  soon  be  out  of  date,  it  is 
not  deemed  advisable  here  to  give  any  of  the  experimental  con- 
trol measures.  In  case  an  infestation  of  thrips  occurs  the  owner 
of  the  orchard  should  consult  the  nearest  experiment  station. 

62.  Leaf -Blister  Mite. — The  leaf -blister  mite  that  attacks 
the  pear  and  other  horticultural  crops  is  not  a  true  insect;  it 
belongs  to  the  same  class  of  animals  as  the  spiders,  scorpions,  etc. 
The  mites  are  very  small,  being  invisible  to  the  unaided  eye. 


38 


PEAR  CULTURE 


8 


The  mites  pass  the  winter  on  the  trees,  under  the  bud  scales, 
and  attack  the  leaves  as  soon  as  these  begin  to  push  out  in  the 
spring.  They  bore  small  holes  from  the  under  side  to  the 
interior  of  the  leaf,  where  they  deposit  their  eggs,  and  with  their 
progeny  feed  on  the  tender  cells  of  the.  leaf  substance.  Their 
activities  within  the  leaf  tissues  quickly  result  in  the  develop- 
ment of  galls,  or  swellings.  These  are  at  first  small,  pimple- 
like eruptions,  especially  evident  on  the  iipper  surface  of  young 
leaves,  and  are  of  a  reddish  tinge.  The  spots  soon  increase  in 
size,  the  largest  becoming  as  much  as  |  inch  in  diameter.     On 

pear  leaves  the  spots,  as 


a  rule,  become  red  as 
they  grow.  On  the  under 
side  of  the  leaf  the  galls 
are  whitish  and  blister- 
like, not  differing  much 
from  the  general  color  of 
the  leaf  surface.  Later 
the}^  turn  brownish  or 
black,  due  to  the  death 
of  the  injured  leaf  cells, 
lose  much  of  their  thick- 
ness, and  some  may 
become  somewhat 
shrunken.  If  orchards 
are  sprayed  thoroughly 
to     prevent     San    Jose 

scale,  no  additional  spraying  is  likely  to  be  necessary  to  hold 

in  check  the  leaf -blister  mite. 


Fig.  21 


63.  Pear  Slug. — The  pear  slug,  which  attacks  the  pear 
and  cherry  and  sometimes  the  plum,  is  often  found  on  pear 
trees  in  May  and  June,  or  later.  The  slugs  skeletonize  the  upper 
surface  of  the  leaves,  which  are  likely  to  fall  prematurely.  In 
the  case  of  young  trees  the  entire  foliage  miay  fall.  The  slugs 
are  dark,  sticky  larvas  about  |  inch  in  length;  they  are  large 
at  the  head  end  and  taper  gradually.  Fig.  24  (a)  shows  a  larva 
in  the  normal  state ;  (b)  shows  a  larva  with  the  slime  removed ; 


§  8  PEAR  CULTURE  39 

(c)  shows  the  adttlt,  or  parent,  which,  is  a  saw  fly  about  i  inch 
long;  and  (d)  shows  the  work  of  the  larvas  on  a  leaf.  The 
saw  flies  lay  eggs  in  the  leaves  about  the  time  the  foliage  is 
out,  and  from  these  eggs  the  slugs  hatch. 

Pear  slugs  may  be  easily  destroyed  by  spraying  infested  trees 
with  any  of  the  arsenicals  when  the  work  of  the  pests  is  first 
noticed.  They  may  also  be  destroyed  by  whale-oil  soap 
(1  pound  of  soap  to  4  gallons  of  water)  used  as  a  contact  insecti- 
cide. Hellebore,  air-slaked  lime,  or  almost  any  fine  dust  will, 
if  thoroughly  dusted  over  the  trees,  destroy  most  of  the  larvas. 

64.  San  Jose  Scale. — The  San  Jose  scale  attacks  the  pear 
as  badly  as  it  does  other  fruits.  However,  the  pest  does  not 
cause  as  much  alarm  as  it  did  at  one  time,  owing  to  the  dis- 
covery of  effective  control  measures  and  the  dissemination  of 
information  concerning  it.  The  control  measures  are  much 
the  same  in  the  case  of  all  fmits. 

65.  Coddling  Motli. — The  coddling  moth  is  much  less 
injurious  to  the  pear  than  it  is  to  the  apple,  and  in  many  pear- 
growing  regions  little  attention  is  paid  to  it.  Occasionally,  how- 
ever, it  does  considerable  damage  to  a  pear  crop.  If  the  pest  is 
sufficiently  injurious  to  warrant  spraying,  the  same  control 
measures  recommended  in  the  case  of  the  apple  should  be  used. 

66.  Green  Apple  Apliis. — The  green  apple  aphis  is  fre- 
quently found  on  very  young  pear  trees  and  sometimes  on 
older  ones.  If  the  pest  is  properly  combated  it  is  comparatively 
easy  to  control,  but,  as  a  rule,  growers  discover  its  presence  too 
late  to  prevent  damage  to  the  trees.  The  control  measures  are 
the  same  as  in  the  case  of  the  apple. 

67.  Fruit-Tree  Bark  Beetle. — The  fruit-tree  bark  beetle 
is  more  likely  to  attack  diseased  or  dying  trees  than  healthy 
trees  and  is  often  found  in  neglected  orchards.  As  a  rule,  if  an 
orchard  is  properly  cared  for  serious  attacks  by  this  pest  will 
not  occur.  In  case  the  trees  become  badly  infested  it  is  some- 
times advisable  to  remove  and  destroy  them.  A  thorough  dis- 
cussion of  this  insect  has  already  been  given  in  a  previous 
Section. 

248—29 


40  PEAR  CULTURE  §8 

68.  Oyster-Shell  Scale  and  Scurfy  Scale. — The  oyster- 
shell  scale  and  the  scurfy  scale  sometimes  attack  pear  trees, 
but  generally  the  attacks  are  confined  to  trees  that  are  low  in 
vitality.  The  control  measures  are  the  same  as  in  the  case  of 
the  apple. 

69.  Borers. — The  three  borers  that  attack  the  apple, 
namely,  the  round-headed  borer,  the  spotted  borer,  and  the 
fiat-headed  borer,  also  attack  the  pear.  The  control,  measures 
are  the  same  in  both  cases. 

MISCELLANEOUS  INJURIES 

70.  Frost  Injuries. — ^Pears  bloom  early  in  the  spring, 
earlier  than  most  apples,  and  for  that  reason  they  are  often 
damaged  by  frosts.  Orchards  planted  on  unfavorable  sites 
are,  of  course,  more  likely  to  be  injured  by  frosts  than  orchards 
planted  on  favorable  sites,  but  even  if  the  site  has  been  selected 
with  considerable  care,  occasional  injuries,  are  likely  to  occur. 

There  are  several  ways  in  which  pears  may  be  injured  by  frost. 
If  a  severe  frost  occurs  while  the  trees  are  still  in  bud,  the 
buds  will  usually  turn  black  and  fall  off.  If  the  frost  occurs 
while  the  trees  are  in  bloom,  the  pistils  of  the  blossoms  will 
generally  die  and  a  large  percentage  of  the  blossoms  will  fall  from 
the  tree.  Pears  produced  from  the  blossoms  that  remain  may 
be  small  or  they  may  be  fairly  good  sized,  but  in  either  case  they 
will  be  unusually  thick  at  the  neck,  especially  around  the  stem, 
this  giving  the  fruit  somewhat  of  an  unnatural  appearance;  such 
pears  are  seedless.  If  a  severe  frost  occurs  after  the  petals  have 
fallen  and  the  fruit  has  set,  a  considerable  percentage  of  the 
yoimg  pears  will  drop,  and  much  of  the  fruit  that  does  not  drop 
will  be  injured  in  various  ways.  A  common  form  of  fruit  injury 
is  what  is  known  as  neck  ringing.  By  this  is  meant  the  forming 
of  a  band  of  russet  around  a  pear,  usually  on  the  neck.  Pears 
thus  blemished  are  sold  as  culls.  Again,  the  injury  may  be 
of  such  a  nature  as  to  retard  the  growth  and  development  of 
the  fruit. 

Unfortunately,  it  is  impossible  to  give  accurate  information 
regarding  the  exact  temperature  at  or  below  which  pears  will 


§  8  PEAR  CULTURE  41 

be  injured  by  frost.  Many  tables  have  been  published  giving 
the  temperature  at  which  frost  injury  begins,  but  these  have 
been  found  to  be  only  local  in  their  application.  For  example, 
in  most  of  the  tables  published  so  far,  a  temperature  of  29°  F.  is 
given  as  the  minimum  that  fruits  will  withstand,  but  in  the 
Williamette  Valley  of  Oregon  a  temperature  of  25°  F.  has  been 
withstood  by  pears.  The  moisture  content  of  the  atmosphere, 
the  presence  of  fogs,  cloudy  weather,  all  have  a  bearing  on  the 
amount  of  frost  that  plants  will  withstand.  However,  the 
general  statement  may  be  made  that  a  temperature  lower 
than  29°  F.  is  likely  to  be  disastrous  to  a  fruit  crop.  If  a  grower 
is  located  in  a  region  where  the  temperature  drops  to  this  point 
or  lower  it  is  advisable  for  him  to  provide  some  artificial  means 
for  protecting  the  orchard. 

Recent  investigations  have  demonstrated  that  the  artificial 
heating  of  orchards  by  smudge  pots  is  of  great  value  when  the 
temperature  is  low  enough  to  menace  the  crop.  The  use  of  the 
pots  has  already  been  explained  in  a  previous  Section. 

71.  Sun  Scald. — In  spring,  the  weather  is  often  very  warm 
during  the  day  and  rather  cold  at  night.  Under  such  conditions 
the  sap  of  the  trees  will  start  to  rise  rapidly  and  will  get  chilled, 
and  as  a  result,  the  trees  will  be  likely  to  siiffer  from  sun  scald. 
In  some  sections  sun  scald  is  at  times  a  serious  trouble,  especi- 
ally in  the  case  of  varieties  that  start  growth  early  and  trees 
that  are  planted  on  light  soils. 

The  preventive  measures  -  against  sun  scald  already  recom- 
mended in  the  case  of  the  apple  apply  also  to  the  pear. 

72.  Girdling  of  Trees. ^ — Unfortunately,  many  young 
pear  trees  become  girdled,  due  to  such  pests  as  rabbits,  gophers, 
mice,  etc.  If  a  tree  is  completely  girdled  the  top  will  die  and, 
unless  treatment  is  given,  the  tree  may  be  lost.  In  case  of 
complete  girdling  it  is  sometimes  possible  to  bridge-graft  a 
tree,  but  if  the  tree  is  young  it  is  usually  best  to  cut  it  off 
below  the  wound  and  thus  force  out  new  sprouts  from  which  a 
new  body  can  be  developed. 

It  is  difficult  to  control  the  various  pests  that  are  responsible 
for  girdling.     In  the  case  of  rabbits  and  gophers  no  doubt  the 


42  PEAR  CULTURE  §  8 

best  means  of  control  is  to  kill  the  pests  with  guns  and  traps. 
There  are  on  the  market  rabbit-proof  fences  that  are  fairly 
effective,  but  in  localities  where  rabbits  are  numerous  it  is 
unwise  to  depend  on  a  fence  alone  to  protect  an  orchard.  The 
damage  done  by  gophers  is  chiefly  underground  and  the  first 
indication  of  damage  is  the  wilting  of  a  tree  or  the  failtire  of 
a  tree  to  start  growth  in  the  spring.  Mice  can  often  be  con- 
trolled by  painting  the  trunks  of  the  trees  with  whitewash  to 
which  has  been  added  a  considerable  quantity  of  arsenic, 
strychnine,  or  other  such  poison.  By  keeping  straw  away 
from  the  bodies  of  trees  and  keeping  the  ground  free  from 
rubbish,  mice  can  be  prevented  from  wintering  in  the  imme- 
diate vicinity  of  trees. 

73.  Sour  Sap. — ^Pear  trees  occasionally  suffer  from  sour 
sap.  This  trouble  is  often  confused  with  fire  blight,  but  the 
two  are  entirely  dissimilar.  Wood  affected  with  fire  blight 
has  a  reddish  tinge,  which  is  characteristic  of  the  disease.  The 
leaves  of  trees  affected  with  sour  soap  often  become  yellow  and 
sometimes  the  trees  die.  In  all  probability  the  sour  sap  con- 
dition of  trees  is  due  to  excessive  moisture  in  the  ground  during 
the  early  growing  months,  and  there  is  a  possibility  that  the  same 
conditions  that  cause  sun  scald  also  aid  in  bringing  about 
soiu:  sap. 

74.  Breaking  of  Trees. — One  of  the  principal  causes  of 
trees  breaking  is  improper  pruning.  Breaking  occurs  also  as  a 
result  of  improper  methods  of  propping  up  the  branches  and 
insufficient  thinning  of  the  fruit.  The  breaking  of  branches 
is  often  due  to  some  form  of  winter  injury.  It  may  be  that  the 
heart  wood  has  been  injured  and  has  turned  black,  consequently 
when  the  trees  are  bearing  a  heavy  crop  of  fruit  the  branches 
are  unable  to  sustain  the  load.  Occasionally,  breaking  of  trees 
and  branches  is  due  to  ice  and  snow;  young  trees,  especially, 
break  because  of  heavy  loads  of  ice  or  snow. 

If  trees  are  properly  pruned,  thinned,  and  propped  the 
damage  due  to  breakage  is  not  likely  to  be  very  severe.  When 
breaking  of  branches  occurs,  the  branches  should  be  cut  back 
to  clean  wounds;  if  bad  splits  occur  it  is  often  possible  to  bolt 


§  8  PEAR  CULTURE  43 

the  split  parts  together.  If  most  of  the  branches  have  been 
broken  off  of  young  trees  the  trees  can  be  cut  back  severely 
or  be  regrafted,  thus  forcing  out  new  sprouts  from  which  a  good 
top  can  be  developed. 

75.  Bark  Binding. — ^Pear  trees  are  subject  at  times  to 
bark  binding.  This  trouble  is  most  likely  to  be  experienced 
when  the  trees  are  young  and  growing  rapidly.  The  bark, 
which  cannot  expand  fast  enough  to  allow  the  tree  to  develop 
properly,  becomes  tough  and  the  tree  ceases  to  thrive.  Trees 
are  sometimes  said  to  be  bark  bound  when  they  have  ceased 
to  grow  because  of  neglect,  but  this  is  not  true  bark  binding, 
as  the  trees  will  respond  to  proper  culture.  In  case  of  true 
bark  binding  some  growers  have  secured  good  results  by  spraying 
with  a  soap  spray  or  even  with  lime  sulphur.  In  bad  cases, 
relief  may  often  be  secured  by  slitting  the  bark  with  a  sharp 
knife,  care  being  taken  not  to  cut  into  the  wood.  If  trees  are 
not  forced  too  much  in  the  fall,  and  are  tilled  properly  in  spring 
and  summer  there  will  be  little  trouble  from  bark  binding. 

76.  Rough.  Bark. — ^Pear  trees,  especially  old  ones,  are  very 
subject  to  rough  bark.  At  one  time  considerable  importance 
was  attached  to  this  trouble,  owing  to  the  fact  that  investi- 
gators attributed  it  to  a  form  of  blight.  It  was  called  crater 
blight  and  was  thought  to  be  a  serious  disease.  At  the  present 
time  little  importance  is  attached  to  it. 


PEAR  CULTURE 

(PART  2) 


PEAR-ORCHARD  ESTABLISHMENT 


SIZE  FOR  A  PEAR  ORCHARD 

1.  One  of  the  first  and  most  important  points  that  must 
be  considered  by  a  prospective  pear  grower  is  the  acreage  to 
plant.  This  is,  of  course,  largely  an  individual  problem,  con- 
sequently it  can  be  discussed  only  in  an  abstract  way.  In 
general,  it  may  be  said  that  the  most  desirable  size  for  a  pear 
orchard  can  be  determined  only  after  a  consideration  of  such 
factors  as  the  nature  of  the  locality,  the  kind  of  soil,  the  variety 
or  varieties  to  be  grown,  the  amount  of  capital  available,  and 
whether  or  not  the  orchard  will  be  the  sole  source  of  income. 

If  the  locality  is  one  in  which  pear  growing  is  extensively 
practiced  it  is  likely  that  labor  will  be  available  when  needed 
and  that  the  transportation  facilities  are  adequate  for  prompt 
disposal  of  the  fruit.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  there  are  few  or 
no  orchards  in  the  locality,  it  may  be  that  labor  conditions 
and  transportation  facilities  are  such  that  it  would  be  inadvis- 
able to  make  an  extensive  planting.  Also,  in  a  locality  in 
which  there  is  a  wet  and  a  dry  season,  more  intensive  culti- 
vation is  necessary,  in  order  to  conserve  moisture,  than  in  a 
locality  where  there  are  intermittent  rains ;  consequently,  fewer 
acres  can  be  cultivated,  other  conditions  being  equal.  On  the 
Pacific  coast,  where  the  seasons  are  alternately  wet  and  dry, 
it  has  been  the  experience  of   growers  that  under  average 

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§9 


2  PEAR  CULTURE  §9 

conditions  one  man  can  do  most  of  the  work  necessary  in  a 
40-acre  orchard  up  to  the  time  the  trees  come  into  bearing. 

Light  soils  are  easier  to  cultivate  than  heavy  ones;  conse- 
quently, if  the  soil  of  a  locality  is  fairly  light  a  grower  wUl  be 
justified  in  planting  a  larger  orchard  than  if  the  soil  is  extremely 
heavy.  In  the  case  of  a  reasonably  light  soU,  one  man  can 
usually  cultivate  about  40  acres  of  orchard,  whereas,  in  the  case 
of  a  very  heavy  soil,  such  as  adobe,  about  25  acres  is  all  that 
can  be  handled  properly.  Minor  soil  differences  are,  of  course, 
negligible  and  should  not  be  considered  in  deciding  on  the 
acreage  to  plant. 

If  only  one  variety  of  pear  is  to  be  planted  it  would  be  unwise 
to  plant  as  large  an  acreage  as  if  several  varieties  are  to  be 
planted,  as  in  the  former  case  the  pears  would  all  mature  at 
the  same  time,  whereas  in  the  latter  case  the  harvesting  season 
would  extend  over  a  considerable  period.  In  the  case  of  local- 
ities where  the  labor  supply  is  uncertain,  this  is  an  important 
point  to  consider. 

2.  The  capital  required  per  acre  to  establish  a  pear  orchard 
varies  greatly  in  different  sections  and  with  different  conditions. 
Considerable  good  pear  land  is  available  that  can  be  purchased 
for  from  $50  to  $150  an  acre,  and  there  are  a  few  regions  where 
satisfactory  land  can  still  be  procured  for  as  little  as  $5  to  $10 
an  acre.  The  average  planting  will  be  about  one  himdred 
trees  to  the  acre.  Pear  trees  can  usually  be  purchased  for 
from  10  to  30  cents  each,  20  cents  being  an  average  price. 
Estimating  the  planting  to  be  one  hundred  trees  per  acre 
and  the  price  per  tree  to  be  20  cents,  the  trees  alone  will  cost 
$20  an  acre.  It  will  probably  cost  4  or  5  cents  a  tree  to  stake 
the  ground  for  planting  and  to  plant  the  trees.  Estimating 
the  cost  of  this  work  at  5  cents  a  tree,  the  cost  per  acre  will 
be  $5,  making  the  total  cost  for  merely  procuring  the  trees 
and  setting  them  $25  per  acre.  It  is  possible,  under  certain 
conditions,  to  establish  an  orchard  for  as  little  as  $10  an  acre; 
under  other  conditions,  it  may  cost  several  times  this  amount, 
depending  on  whether  the  trees  are  purchased  or  are  grown  by 
the  orchardist,  on  the  kind  of  trees  planted,  and  on  the  number 


§  9  PEAR  CULTURE  3 

planted  per  acre.  The  cost  of  cultivating  an  orchard  and  other- 
wise caring  for  it  up  to  the  age  of  bearing  varies  so  greatly 
under  different  conditions  that  it  is  impracticable  to  give  an 
estimate.  It  is  claimed  by  some  authorities  that  an  orchard 
can  be  established  and  cared  for  up  to  the  time  of  bearing, 
provided  land  is  purchased  at  a  reasonable  price  and  the  orch- 
ard is  properly  managed,  for  about  $250  to  $300  an  acre.  In 
many  cases  the  cost  will  be  less,  of  course,  and  in  other  cases 
more. 

If  an  orchard  is  to  be  the  sole  source  of  income  to  a  grower 
it  is  probable  that  a  larger  planting  will  be  made  than  if  the 
orchard  is  merely  to  be  a  side  line  to  some  other  business.  It 
should  be  borne  in  mind,  however,  that  in  some  localities  where 
pear  trees  bear  very  irregularly  it  would  be  unwise  to  depend 
on  a  pear  orchard  for  a  living. 


LOCATION  FOR  A  PEAR  ORCHARD 


CHOOSING    OF    A    GENEKAi    LOCATION 

3.  If  a  person  desires  to  engage  in  pear  growing  and  is  in 
possession  of  land  that  is  suitable  for  the  purpose,  all  that  is 
necessary  is  to  select  a  nimiber  of  different  varieties  that  will 
delevop  to  a  high  state  of  perfection  under  the  conditions  that 
prevail.  If,  however,  no  suitable  land  is  possessed  and  it  is  there- 
fore necessary  for  a  grower  to  go  into  the  market  for  land,  he 
should  choose  a  location  where  the  fruit  grown  will  be  of  high 
quality  and  where  fire  blight  is  either  not  prevalent  or  is  under 
control.  The  pear  wiU  grow  under  a  great  variety  of  conditions, 
even  greater,  perhaps,  than  the  apple.  If  it  were  not  for  the  men- 
ace of  fire  blight,  the  growing  of  pears  would  not  be  particularly 
hazardous.  As  the  disease  is  so  destructive,  however,  extreme 
caution  should  be  observed  in  choosing  a  location  for  an  orchard. 
The  reasons  for  this  statement  will  be  given  subsequently. 

Some  of  the  most  important  points  that  should  be  considered 
in  the  choosing  of  a  general  location  for  a  pear  orchard  are: 
The  distance  from  market,  the   transportation   facilities,  the 


4  PEAR  CULTURE  §  9 

quantity  of  pears  grown  in  the  locality,   the  class  of  people 
growing  pears  in  the  locality,  and  the  climatic  conditions. 

4.  Distance  From  Market. — ^As  a  factor  in  affecting  the 
desirability  of  a  location  for  pear  growing,  the  distance  from 
market  is  of  much  less  importance  than  it  was  at  one  time'. 
The  introduction  of  cold-storage  plants,  refrigerator  cars,  and 
other  improved  facilities  for  the  handling  of  crops  has  greatly 
lengthened  the  season  of  pears  and  has  broadened  the  market. 
In  certain  sections,  however,  if  summer  and  fall  varieties  are 
grown,  lack  of  proper  facilities  for  handling  the  crops  will 
make  it  necessary  to  dispose  of  them  in  a  relatively  short  time. 
Under  such  conditions  it  is  of  advantage,  of  course,  to  be  near 
a  large  center  of  population  where  there  is  a  demand  for  the 
fruit.  In  addition,  if  an  orchard  is  located  near  a  large  market 
the  expense  of  shipping  the  fruit  to  market  will  naturally  be 
less,  as  a  rule,  than  if  the  orchard  is  distant  from  market. 

In  some  regions  where  the  growers  are  organized,  the  rail- 
roads have  granted  a  flat  rate  for  the  transporting  of  fruit. 
For  example,  the  carload  rate  for  pears  shipped  from  the  western 
part  of  Oregon  is  exactly  the  same  as  the  rate  that  prevails 
in  the  eastern  part,  which  is  several  hundred  miles  nearer  the 
market  than  the  western  part.  Thus,  all  pear  growers  in 
Oregon  are  able  to  obtain  the  same  carload  rate  for  eastern 
shipments.  In  addition,  many  of  the  railroads  are  now  estab- 
lishing what  are  known  as  storage-in-transit  rates.  Where 
these  rates  are  operative  a  grower  can  ship  fruit  to  one  city, 
place  it  in  cold  storage,  and  then  ship  it  on  to  another  city 
at  exactly  the  same  rate  that  would  have  been  charged  had  the 
fruit  been  shipped  directly  to  the  second  city.  As  an  illustra- 
tion, an  Oregon  grower  can  ship  pears  to  Chicago,  place  them 
in  cold  storage,  and  later,  if  desired,  ship  them  on  to  Cincinnati 
at  the  same  rate  that  he  would  have  obtained  if  he  had  shipped 
the  pears  from  his  orchard  directly  to  Cincinnati.  These 
storage-in-transit  rates  are  a  great  boon  to  fruit  growers,  as 
they  cut  down  the  expense  of  distributing  a  crop.  At  the 
present  time  there  is  a  tendency  for  fruit  growers'  associa- 
tions to  establish  cold-storage  plants  in  the  large  centers  of 


§  9  PEAR  CULTURE  5 

population  so  that,  by  means  of  storage-in-transit  rates,  the 
fruit  can  be  economically  distributed  to  the  smaller  cities  and 
towns.  All  of  these  progressive  steps  in  the  handling  of  fruit 
serve  to  minimize  the  importance  of  the  distance  from  market. 

5.  Transportation  racilities. — Careftd  consideration 
should  be  given  to  the  transportation  facilities  of  a  locality  before 
it  is  chosen  for  pear  growing.  Where  fast  freights,  refrigerator 
cars,  and  ice  for  precooling  are  available,  pears  can  be  handled 
much  more  efhciently  and  economically  than  where  such  serv- 
ice is  not  available.  Also,  it  is  often  an  advantage  to  be  on 
the  main  line  of  a  railroad,  as  the  rates  are  likely  to  be  lower 
than  on  a  branch  line.  Transportation  by  water  is  generally 
cheaper  than  transportation  by  rail  and  is  especially  valuable 
for  small  shipments  such  as  are  made  by  growers  where  crops 
are  not  large  enough  to  be  shipped  in  carload  lots. 

6.  Quantity  of  Pears  Grown  in  the  Locality. — It  is 

a  decided  advantage  to  choose  as  a  location  for  a  pear  orchard 
a  locality  in  which  there  is  a  large  acreage  devoted  to  pear 
growing.  In  such  a  locality  an  orchard  will,  in  case  the  owner 
wishes  to  sell  it,  bring  a  higher  price  than  in  a  locality  where 
few  pears  are  grown.  In  addition,  pear  buyers  are  much 
more  likely  to  visit  a  locality  where  there  is  a  possibility  that 
they  will  be,  able  to  purchase  a  carload  or  perhaps  a  train  load 
of  fruit  than  where  there  is  only  the  product  of  one  orchard 
to  be  purchased.  This  last  is  a  very  important  point,  as  it 
is  usually  more  profitable  and  satisfactory  to  sell  fruit  to  a 
buyer  than  to  sell  it  by  correspondence.  The  large  com- 
mission houses  make  it  a  practice  to  send  representatives  from. 
time  to  time  to  the  various  pear-growing  centers ;  consequently, 
the  growers  of  these  centers  are  able  to  keep  in  touch  with 
market  conditions  much  better  than  are  isolated  growers. 

7.  Class  of  Persons  Growing  Pears  in  tlie  Locality. 

With  the  exception  of  controlling  fire  blight,  probably  less  skill 
is  required  to  grow  pears  than  to  grow  apples.  However,  the 
susceptibility  of  the  pear  to  fire  blight  and  the  desti-uctiveness 
of  the  disease  make  it  highly  important  that  it  be  controlled; 


6  PEAR  CULTURE  §9 

and  this  is  possible  only  where  the  disease  is  understood  and 
intelligently  combated.  For  this  reason,  the  class  of  persons 
engaged  in  the  growing  of  pears  in  a  locality  is  of  considerable 
importance  in  affecting  the  desirability  of  the  locality  for  pear 
orcharding.  In  one  of  the  great  Oregon  pear  districts,  the 
pear  orchards  of  an  entire  county  were  menaced  by  fire  blight 
simply  because  a  few  growers  refused  to  accept  the  fact  that 
fire  blight  is  a  bacterial  disease. 

Fortunately,  at  the  present  time  it  is  not  so  difficult  to  con- 
vince growers  of  the  necessity  for  combating  blight  as  it  was 
formerly.  Before  establishing  an  orchard,  however,  it  would 
be  well  for  a  grower  to  become  informed  regarding  the  class 
of  persons  engaged  in  the  industry  in  the  neighborhood.  If 
the  growers  are  ignorant  and  disinclined  to  accept  new  ideas 
and  practices  it  would  probably  be  inadvisable  to  plant  an 
orchard  in  the  locality. 

8.  Climatic  Conditions. — From  a  climatic  standpoint, 
the  ideal  location  for  a  pear  orchard  is  a  region  where  there  is 
plenty  of  rainfall,  where  the  temperature  in  summer  does  not 
become  extreme,  and  where  frosts  do  not  occur  when  the  trees 
are  in  bloom.  If  a  region  is  too  dry  the  trees  will  not  thrive 
unless  irrigated.  Excessive  heat  in  summer  makes  the  handling 
of  summer  and  early  fall  pears  extremely  difficult.  The  likeli- 
hood of  frosts  occurring  when  the  trees  are  in  bloom,  is,  obvi- 
ously, a  strong  point  against  a  region  as  a  location  for  an 
orchard.  In  the  United  States,  the  best  climatic  conditions  for 
pear  growing  are  found  in  the  northern  tier  of  states  and  in 
certain  of  the  Western  States,  particularly  Washington,  Oregon, 
and  California.  In  many  of  the  semiarid  regions  where  irriga- 
tion is  necessary  to  grow  the  trees  and  the  temperature  becomes 
very  high,  it  is  often  difficult  to  control  fire  blight.  Pears  can, 
of  course,  be  grown  under  a  wide  range  of  climatic  conditions, 
but  they  will  do  best  where  the  conditions  previously  mentioned 
prevail. 


PEAR  CULTURE 


CHOOSING    OF    A    SITE 


9.  The  selecting  of  a  suitable  site  for  a  pear  orchard  is 
an  extremely  important  point.  The  general  location  may  be 
well  adapted  to  pear  growing  and  good  varieties  for  the  local- 
ity may  be  chosen,  but  if  the  immediate  site  is  not  suitable, 
failure  will  result.  In  the  selecting  of  a  site,  the  following 
points  should  receive  consideration:  The  nature  of  the  soil, 
the  elevation,  the  exposure,  and  the  water  and  air  drainage. 

10.  Soils  for  Pear  Orchards. — The  kind  of  soil  that  is 
best  for  pear  .growing  depends  largely  on  the  region  and  on  the 
variety  that  is  to  be  grown.  In  New  York  State  pears  thrive 
best  on  clay  loams,  and  in  Pennsylvania  they  do  especially 
well  on  alluvial  soils.  In  Maryland,  where  a  large  number  of 
KiefEers  are  grown,  pears  do  well  on  sandy  soils  and,  in  some 
cases,  on  clay  soils.  Growers  in  most  of  the  Southern  States 
prefer  rather  poor  .soils,  the  light  loams  being  chosen  because 
of  the  fact  that  trees  will  not  make  such  profuse  growth  on 
them  as  on  strong  soils,  and  consequently  will  be  less  subject  to 
fire  blight.  In  Indiana,  pears  thrive  best  on  clay  loams  and 
suffer  less  from  blight  if  the  soil  is  poor.  Michigan  growers 
prefer  clay  loams.  In  Illinois,  the  trees  seem  to  thrive  best 
on  rich,  black  soils,  but  on  such  soils  they  are  likely  to  be  killed 
by  blight.  In  Oregon,  pears  do  well  on  a  variety  of  soils  ranging 
from  the  heaviest  adobe,  on  one  hand,  to  the  lightest  granitic 
soil,  on  the  other  hand.  In  general,  it  may  be  said  that  in  the 
northern  tier  of  states  clay  loams  seem  to  be  the  best  soils  for 
standard  pears;  that  in  the  Southern  and  the  Middle- Western 
States  the  unfertile  loams  are  preferred;  and  that  in  the  Western 
States  soils  that  are  neither  very  rich  nor  very  poor  are  con- 
sidered the  best.  Dwarf  pear  trees  develop  a  fibrous  root 
system  and  consequently  thrive  best  on  a  rich,  moist  soil  that 
has  a  subsoil  of  porous  clay. 

In  localities  where  the  rainfall  is  light  in  summer  and  where 
water  is  not  available  for  irrigation,  it  would  not  be  wise  to 
plant  an  orchard  on  soils  that  will  not  hold  moisture.  For 
example,  on  the  Pacific  slope,  where  there  is  a  dry  season,  it 


8  PEAR  CULTURE  §  9 

wotdd  not  be  advisable,  unless  water  for  irrigation  is  available, 
to  plant  pear  trees  on  land  that  has  a  subsoil  of  sand,  coarse 
gravel,  or  hard  rock.  Even  though  irrigation  water  is  avail- 
able, the  presence  of  gravel  near  the  surface  of  the  ground  is 
likely  to  make  irrigation  out  of  the  question.  Pears  will  often 
thrive  on  ground  where  the  subsoil  is  a  stiff  clay  or  hardpan, 
provided  the  subsoil  is  overlaid  with  from  30  to  40  inches  of 
suitable  top  soil,  but  if  the  soU  is  thin,  a  subsoil  of  this  character 
will  render  land  undesirable  for  pear  growing.  .  In  some  sec- 
tions, pear  trees  thrive  on  soil  that  is  underlaid  with  disin- 
tegrating rock,  the  trees  apparently  living  on  the  disintegrated 
material. 

On  the  Atlantic  seaboard,  depth  of  soil  is  not  as  essential 
in  pear  growing  as  it  is  on  the  Pacific  slope.  This  condition 
is  due  to  the  fact  that  during  the  growing  season  there  is  more 
rainfall  in  the  Eastern  States  than  in  the  Western  States,  and 
consequently  there  is  less  need  for  conserving  moisture. 

Different  varieties  of  pears  seem  to  do  better  on  certain 
kinds  of  soil  than  on  others.  The  Bartlett,  the  Comice,  and 
the  Howell  probably  do  best  on  light  loams.  The  Bartlett 
is  a  pear  of  remarkable  adaptability,  however,  thriving  on  a  great 
variety  of  soils  and  under  a  great  variety  of  conditions.  The 
Anjou,  the  Bosc,  and  the  Winter  Nelis  seem  to  do  best  on 
strong  loams;  unless  the  Winter  Nelis  is  grown  on  soil  fairly 
rich  in  plant-food,  the  fruit  will,  in  time,  become  very  small. 

11.  Elevation  for  Pear  Orchards. — It  would  be  impos- 
sible to  state  that  there  is  a  definite  elevation  at  which  the  pear 
will  thrive  better  than  at  any  other.  In  the  Rocky  Mountain 
States,  particularly  Utah  and  Colorado,  pears  are  grown  suc- 
cessfully at  as  high  an  altitude  as  4,000  feet  above  sea  level; 
in  the  Pacific  Coast  States  they  do  best  when  grown  at  an 
altitude  of  less  than  2,000  feet;  in  the:  Middle  Western  and  the 
Eastern  States  most  of  the  commercial  orchards  are  at  a  com- 
paratively low  elevation;  and  in  many  of  the  Southern  States 
the  higher  altitudes  seem  to  be  better  for  pears  than  the  lower 
altitudes,  as  the  trees  make  a  more  desirable  gro^vth.  From 
these  statements  it  may  be  seen  that  the  best  altitude  for  pears 


§9  PEAR  CULTURE  9 

varies  with  the  locality.  The  indications  are  that  pears,  at 
least  certain  varieties,  will  not  thrive  on  as  high  elevations  as 
will  apples. 

12.  Exposure  for  Pear  Orchards. — If  summer  or  fall 
varieties  are  to  be  planted,  a  southern  slope  is  the  most  pref- 
erable one  to  choose,  as  a  southern  exposure  is  conducive  to 
early  ripening.  However,  in  frosty  localities  a  southern  slope 
is  somewhat  objectionable,  because  the  trees  are  likely  to  bloom 
so  early  that  frost  will  damage  the  fruit  crop,  and  in  addition, 
the  trees  may  be  injured  by  sun  scald.  In  regions  where  frosts 
are  to  be  feared,  a  northern  or  a  western  exposure  is  the  most 
preferable.  If  a  locality  is  free  from  frosts  it  makes  very  little 
difference  what  exposure  is  chosen. 

13.  Water    and    Air   Drainage    for    Pear    Orchards. 

Water  drainage  is  perhaps  not  as  important  in  the  case  of  the 
pear  as  in  the  case  of  the  apple,  nevertheless  the  pear  requires 
land  that  is  fairly  well  drained.  Trees  that  are  grown  on  water- 
logged land  are  low  in  vitality  and  consequently  succumb 
easily  to  insect  pests  and  plant  diseases.  In  addition,  trees 
grown  on  wet  soil  are  not  likely  to  bear  well. 

Air  drainage  is  very  important  in  the  case  of  the  pear,  owing 
to  the  fact  that  the  trees  bloom  early  and  are  very  susceptible 
to  frost  injury.  However,  on  even  gently  rolling  land  it  is 
likely  that  the  air  drainage  will  be  sufficient.  In  very  high 
altitudes  it  is  often  of  advantage  to  choose  a  site  in  the  vicinity 
of  a  canon,  as  the  canon  breezes  will  afford  considerable 
protection  from  frosts.  Pear  orchards  should  not  be  planted 
on  low,  flat  areas,  or  on  level  areas  at  the  immediate  base  of 
high  elevations,  as  wsuch  sites  are  likely  to  be  frosty. 


CHOOSING  OF  VARIETIES 

14.  The  selecting  of  suitable  varieties  of  pears  for  a  par- 
ticular locality  is  a  point  that  is  of  much  more  importance 
than  it  was  formerly  thought  to  be.  Varieties  differ  consider- 
ably in  their  adaptation  to  different  regions.  Some  varieties 
do  not  develop  well  under  certain  climatic  conditions;  others 


10  PEAR  CULTURE  §  9 

do  not  do  well  on  certain  soils.  In  the  New  England  States 
and  in  most  of  the  Northern  States  such  varieties  as  the  Bart- 
lett,  Bosc,  Anjou,  Flemish,  Seckel,  Lawrence,  Sheldon,  Clair- 
geau,  and  Angouleme  are  the  leaders.  In  the  Southern  States 
and  in  many  parts  of  the  Middle  West  the  Kieffer,  LeConte, 
and  Garber  are  becoming  the  leading  varieties.  On  the  Pacific 
coast,  where  pear  growing  has  become  commercialized  more 
than  in  any  other  part  of  the  country,  a  great  many  varieties 
are  found.  In  California  the  Bartlett,  Anjou,  Comice,  Howell, 
Winter  Nelis,  and  Patrick  Barry  are  the  most  popular  varieties. 
In  Oregon  and  Washington  the  leading  varieties  at  the  present 
time  are  the  Bartlett,  Howell,  Clairgeau,  Anjou,  Comice,  and 
Winter  Nelis,  but  the  Glout  Morceau,  Hardy,  and  Patrick 
Barry  are  rapidly  increasing  in  popularity. 

In  the  discussion  of  the  status  of  pear  growing  in  the  dif- 
ferent states,  mention  is  made  of  the  varieties  that  are  in  greatest 
favor  in  each  state.  This  should  give  a  general  idea  of  the 
varieties  that  are  adapted  to  a  general  locality,  but  before 
planting  an  orchard  it  is  a  good  plan  for  a  grower  to  ascertain 
from  his  state  experiment  station  the  most  desirable  varieties 
for  his  particiilar  location. 


PROCURING  OF  TREES 

15.  It  is  not,  as  a  rule,  advisable  for  a  grower  to  attempt 
to  propagate  his  own  trees.  Considerable  skiU.  is  required, 
especially  in  budding,  and  besides,  it  wiU  usually  prove  to  be 
more  economical  to  purchase  the  trees.  Notwithstanding 
this  fact,  however,  it  is  well  for  a  grower  to  know  something 
of  the  way  in  which  pear  trees  are  propagated. 

16.  Propagating  of  Trees. — Standard  pear  trees  are 
propagated  by  grafting  or  budding  the  variety  desired  onto 
seedling-pear  stocks.  A  few  years  ago  practically  all  of  the 
pear  seedlings  used  in  this  country  were  grown  in  France.  In 
many  cases  seeds  were  collected  in  this  country  and  sent  to 
France  for  the  production  of  seedlings,  which  were  subsequently 
returned    to    America.     One    reason    for   this    was    that    the 


§  9  PEAR  CULTURE  11 

American  nurserymen  had  a  great  deal  of  trouble  with  leaf 
blight  and  other  diseases,  which  attacked  the  seedlings. 
Another  reason  was  that  the  seedlings  could  be  produced 
cheaper  in  France  than  in  America.  At  the  present  time, 
however,  a  great  many  seedlings  are  produced  in  this  country, 
American  nurserymen  having  learned  how  to  combat  the 
diseases  and  how  to  grow  seedlings  economically.  Former!}'-, 
nearly  all  of  the  seed  used  for  the  production  of  seedlings  was 
that,  of  the  European  pear.  Of  late  years  niurserymen,  particu- 
larly those  of  the  Pacific  coast,  have  been  using  for  this  purpose 
seed  of  the  Oriental  pear.  The  present  popularity  of  Oriental 
pear  stock  is  due  to  the  fact  that  it  is  more  resistant  to  fire 
blight  than  European  pear  stock,  and  that  the  trees  make 
excellent  growth  in  the  nursery. 

For  the  production  of  seedlings,  plump,  well-developed  seeds 
from  vigorous,  healthy  trees  are  selected.  The  seeds  are 
stratified  in  the  fall  and  kept  there  until  time  to  plant  them  in 
the  spring.  When  the  ground  has  become  warm  enough  for 
the  planting  the  seeds  are  sown  in  rows  wide  enough  apart 
for  cultivation.  It  is  important  that  the  ground  be  kept 
fairly  moist,  otherwise  the  seeds  will  not  germinate.  As  soon 
as  the  seedlings  come  up  they  are  cultivated,  the  cultivation 
being  continued  at  frequent  intervals  throughout  the  summer. 
Pear  seedling  form  a  long  tap  root  with  a  few,  if  any,  side  roots. 
For  this  reason  they  are  usually  taken  up  in  the  fall  and  the 
tap  roots  are  cut  back  so  that  they  are  not  more  than  from  6  to 
8  inches  long.  After  this  cutting  back  of  the  roots,  the  trees 
are  either  replanted  in  nursery  rows  and  earthed  up  to  prevent 
winter  injury,  or,  preferably,  are  heeled-in  in  a  frost-proof 
cellar.  In  the  spring,  the  trees  are  transplanted  to  a  new  loca- 
tion. By  the  following  August,  in  most  of  the  Northern  and 
Pacific  Coast  States,  the  trees  can  be  budded;  in  the  Southern 
States,  budding  can  usually  be  done  during  July. 

In  the  case  of  standard  trees,  budding  is  practiced  much  more 
extensively  than  grafting.  Grafted  trees  do  not  seem  to  grow 
as  well  as  budded  trees,  consequently  they  are  not  in  as  great 
demand.  Either  budding  or  grafting  may  be  accomplished 
in  the  same  way  as  with  apples. 

248—30 


12  PEAR  CULTURE  §  9 

Varieties  such  as  the  Kieffer,  Garber,  and  LeConte,  which 
belong  to  the  Oriental  group  of  pears,  can  be  propagated  by 
means  of  cuttings,  this  method  being  extensively  used  in  the 
South. 

Dwarf  pear  trees  are  propagated  by  budding  or  grafting 
the  pear  onto  quince  stock.  Some  varieties  do  not  unite  well 
with  the  quince,  however,  and  in  the  case  of  these  it  is  neces- 
sary to  double-work  the  trees.  This  process  consists  of  bud- 
ding or  grafting  the  quince  stock  with  a  variety  of  pear  that 
is  known  to  unite  well  with  the  quince;  then  when  the  resulting 
tree  has  grown  to  a  sufficient  size  it  is  top-worked  to  the  desired 
variety.  Formerly,  the  Angouleme  was  the  principal  variety 
used  for  the  first  budding  or  grafting,  but  at  the  present  time 
the  Koonce  is  considered  the  best  variety  for  this  purpose. 

17.  PuTcliasiiig  of  Nursery  Trees. — If  a  person  desires 
to  purchase  pear  trees  he  should,  if  possible,  make  a  tour  of 
the  available  nurseries  in  order  to  examine  the  stock.  If  this 
is  done  he  will  be  able  to  select  trees  that  are  free  from  serious 
insect  infestations  and  fungous  diseases,  and  that  have  good 
root  system.  In  most  states  there  are  laws  that  prohibit 
the  sale  of  trees  affected  with  certain  of  the  destructive  insect 
pests  and  fungous  diseases,  but  unless  the  purchaser  knows 
the  reliability  of  a  partictdar  nursery,  it  is  a  good  plan  for  him 
to  examine  the  trees  before  buying. 

There  is  a  growing  tendency  on  the  part  of  orchardists  to 
plant  younger  and  smaller  trees  than  were  formerly  in  demand. 
A  few  years  ago,  growers  preferred  2-year-old  trees,  but  at 
the  present  time  the  greatest  demand  is  for  1 -year-old  trees. 
In  the  case  of  1-year-old  trees  a  grower  has  a  much  better 
opportunity  to  form  the  tops  than  in  the  case  of  2-year-old 
trees,  and  in  addition,  trees  planted  when  they  are  1  year  old 
retain  more  of  the  root  system  and  make  a  better  growth  than 
trees  planted  when  they  are  2  years  old. 

Many  persons  when  buying  nursery  trees  make  the  mistake 
of  purchasing  the  largest  ones  they  can  obtain.  It  is  always 
best  to  purchase  well-grown  and  well-matured  trees  rather 
than  overgrown  trees  on  the  one  hand  or  stunted  trees  on  the 


PEAR  CULTURE 


13 


other  hand.  Many  of  the 
overgrown  trees  are  soft. 
The  sap  does  not  go  down 
rapidly  enough  in  the  fall 
and  consequently  the  trees 
are  susceptible  to  winter  in- 
jury or  even  to  injury  from 
cold  periods  in  the  autumn. 
Much  of  the  trouble  that  is 
experienced  with  1 -year-old 
trees  may  be  attributed  to 
improper  methods  of  han- 
dling after  the  trees  are  re- 
ceived from  the  nursery. 

In  selecting  trees,  care 
should  be  exercised  to  choose 
those  that  are  thrifty,  clean, 
and  of  medium  growth.  It 
would  not  be  safe  to  say 
that  only  straight  trees 
should  be  purchased,  as 
those  of  some  varieties,  such 
as  the  Winter  Nelis  and 
the  Bosc,  are  usually  very 
unshapely  while  they  are  in 
the  nursery  and  often  even 
until  they  come  into  bear- 
ing. It  is  extremely  desir- 
able to  procure  trees  that 
are  well  supplied  with  buds, 
as  in  this  case  the  grower 
will  be  able  to  prune  so  that 
the  branches  will  be  properly 
spaced.  Fig.  1  shows  desii- 
able  1 -year-old  trees;  in  (a) 
is  shown  a  Comice  tree  and 
in  (6)  is  shown  a  Winter 
Nelis  tree. 


14  PEAR  CULTURE  §9 

18.  If  a  grower  desires  to  procure  trees  from  a  nursery  he 
should  place  his  order  early  so  as  to  avoid  any  possibility  of 
disappointment.  When  the  trees  arrive  at  the  railroad  sta- 
tion, if  they  are  shipped,  the  grower  should  get  them  promptly 
in  order  to  be  sure  that  they  will  not  be  injured.  The  trees 
should  then  be  heeled-in  until  time  to  plant  them.  It  is  desir- 
able, in  heeling-in  the  trees,  to  have  the  tops  point  toward 
the  south;  this  is  especially  important  if  the  planting  is  to  be 
done  in  the  spring,  as  the  trees  will  not  be  as  likely  to  start  to 
grow  as  if  the  tops  pointed  toward  the  north.  If  considerable 
time  is  to  elapse  from  the  time  the  trees  are  received  until 
they  are  planted  in  the  orchard,  it  is  best  to  heel  them  in  singly 
rather  than  in  bundles.  Trees  heeled-in  singly  are  not  so 
likely  to  be  injured  by  scald  as  those  heeled-in  in  bundles. 
The  soil  should  be  tamped  firmly  about  the  roots,  and  if  there 
is  danger  of  very  cold  weather,  it  is  advisable  to  scatter  a  little 
mulch,  such  as  decayed  leaves  or  straw,  on  the  ground  around 
the  trees. 


PLANTING  OF  TREES 

19.  Time  for  Planting. — ^Where  the  climatic  conditions 
are  suitable  it  is  better  to  plant  pear  trees  in  the  fall  than  in 
the  spring.  Fall  planting  has  the  advantage  over  spring  plant- 
ing in  that  the  trees  become  firmly  established  in  the  soil  before 
winter  sets  in  and  are  thus  able  to  start  growth  in  the  spring 
before  the  ground  can  be  put  in  condition  for  spring  planting. 
This  is  an  important  advantage,  as  the  trees  make  a  good 
growth  in  the  early  part  of  the  season  before  summer  droughts 
occur.  In  many  localities,  however,  it  is  not  advisable  to 
plant  pear  trees  in  the  fall.  If  the  winter  temperature  of  a 
locality  becomes  very  low  at  times,  such  as  zero  or  lower,  fall- 
planted  trees  would  be  likely  to  sustain  injury  the  first  winter 
from  freezing  of  the  roots.  In  general,  it  may  be  said  that  if 
there  is  any  doubt  as  to  the  best  time  to  plant  trees,  it  is  a 
good  plan  to  choose  the  spring.  In  the  case  of  fall  planting 
the  trees  may  be  planted  any  time  from  late  fall  to  almost 
spring.     If  spring  is  chosen  as  the  time  for  planting,  the  trees 


§  9  PEAR  CULTURE  15 

should  be  set  in  the  ground  as  early  as  it  can  be  got  in  proper 
condition. 

20.  Preparing  of  the  Soil. — The  pear  will  grow  on  more 
poorly  drained  land  than  the  apple,  but  nevertheless  it  will 
not  do  well  unless  it  has  fairly  good  drainage.  If  the  land  is 
poorly  drained  the  trees  will  be  low  in  vitality  and  will  not 
produce  well.  It  is  doubtful,  however,  whether  it  is  advis- 
able to  plant  pear  trees  on  land  that  requires  systematic  drain- 
age over  the  entire  area,  as  plenty  of  good  land  for  pear  growing 
can  be  obtained  that  does  not  need  much,  if  any,  draining. 
In  case  some  draining  is  necessary,  the  tile  should  be  laid  fairly 
deep,  from  4|  to  5  feet  being,  as  a  rule,  a  good  depth. 

It  is  important  that  land  for  pears  be  thoroughly  prepared 
before  the  trees  are  planted.  If  the  planting  is  to  be  done  in 
the  spring  and  the  soil  is  stiff,  it  is  advisable  to  plow  the  ground 
in  the  fall,  especially  in  climates  where  there  is  considerable 
freezing  in  winter,  as  the  alternate  freezing  and  thawing  will 
pulverize  the  soil.  Fall  plowing  is  advantageous,  too,  in  regions 
where  there  is  danger  of  summer  drought,  as  the  soil  will  absorb 
a  great  deal  of  moisture  that  will  be  of  value  during  the  grow- 
ing season.  Of  course,  if  it  is  not  convenient  to  plow  the  grotmd 
in  the  fall  for  spring  planting,  the  plowing  can  be  done  early 
in  the  spring.  If  the  planting  is  to  be  done  in  the  fall,  the 
plowing  should  be  done  a  sufficient  length  of  time  before  the 
trees  are  to  be  set  to  allow  of  getting  the  land  in  proper  order. 

The  depth  to  plow  depends  largely  on  the  nature  of  the  soil. 
In  the  case  of  soils  that  are  light  and  mellow  and  do  not  have 
a  stiff-clay  subsoil,  less  preparation  will  be  required  than  in  the 
case  of  heavy  soils.  An  excellent  plan  in  the  case  of  extremely 
heavy  soils  is  to  plow  the  ground  in  lands,  leaving  the  dead 
furrows  where  the  rows  of  trees  are  to  be  set.  It  is  well  to 
break  up  the  bottoms  of  the  dead  furrows  by  running  a  subsoil 
plow  through  them  two  or  three  times.  This  method  affords 
a  good  tilth  under  the  trees  and  provides  a  measure  of  under- 
drainage.  Under  average  conditions  it  is  advisable  to  plow 
from  about  8  to  9  inches  deep,  if  possible,  and  harrow  the 
ground  well  before  planting. 


16  PEAR  CULTURE  §  9 

When  the  planting  is  to  be  done  in  spring  and  the  land  has 
been  plowed  the  previous  fall,  the  soil  should  be  thoroughly 
worked  in  the  spring  until  it  is  in  good  condition.  For  this 
work  a  disk  harrow,  a  spring-tooth  harrow,  a  clod  crusher, 
or  a  roller  |nay  be  used.  If  the  ground  is  liunpy  a  corrugated 
roller  can  be  used  to  advantage. 

In  some  sections  it  may  be  desired  to  strip  areas  of  their 
timber  and  to  prepare  the  land  for  pear  planting.  In  this 
case  the  stimips  should  be  removed  by  dynamite  or  some  other 
means  and  the  ground  worked  down  thoroughly  before  the 
planting  is  done.  If  the  soil  is  very  loose  and  rich,  it  is  advis- 
able to  grow  other  crops  on  the  land  for  2  or  3  years ;  if  pears 
are  planted  on  soil  that  is  very  rich  the  trees  will  make  too 
rapid  growth  and  consequently  will  be  very  susceptible  to  fire 
blight. 

21.  Distance  for  Planting. — There  is  no  specific  dis- 
tance at  which  pear  trees  will  do  better  than  at  any  other  dis- 
tance, consequently  the  distance  for  planting  is  largely  a  matter 
of  personal  opinion.  Some  of  the  most  experienced  growers 
have  found  that  a  good  distance  for  planting  standard  pears 
is  15  feet  apart  in  the  rows,  the  rows  being  30  feet  apart.  The 
object  of  planting  thus  is  to  obtain  large  crops  of  fruit  from  the 
ground  until  the  trees  become  large  enough  to  interfere  with 
each  other,  when  each  alternate  tree  in  the  rows  is  cut  out, 
leaving  the  trees  a  distance  of  30  feet  apart.  In  case  it  is  not 
desired  to  use  pear  fillers,  a  good  distance  for  planting  is  20  to 
22  feet  apart  each  way. 

Dwarfs  are  sometimes  planted  10  feet  apart  each  way,  but 
15  feet  each  way,  or  193  trees  to  the  acre,  is  better.  This 
distance  gives  room  to  drive  through  the  grounds  for  spraying 
and  gathering  the  fruit. 

The  various  planting  systems  such  as  the  square,  the 
quincunx,  and  the  hexagonal,  which  have  already  been  described 
in  a  previous  Section,  may  be  used  also  in  the  case  of  the  pear. 
The  grower  can  choose  the  system  that  he  prefers. 

22.  Arrangement  of  Varieties. — In  commercial  pear 
orcharding  there  is  a  tendency  to  plant  the  trees  in  large  blocks. 


§9 


PEAR  CULTURE 


17 


leaving  out  a  row  here  and  there  to  provide  driveways.  Grow- 
ers often  go  to  an  extreme  in  this,  however,  planting  single 
varieties  in  large  blocks  only  to  discover  when  it  is  too  late 
that  the  trees  will  not  set  fruit  well,  due  to  self -sterility.  The 
matter  of  pollination  is  an  important  point  to  consider  in 
arranging  the  varieties  in  a  pear  orchard. 

TABLE  I 

BLOOMING    PERIOD    OF    DIFFERENT    VARIETIES    OF    PEARS 


Variety 


Date  of 

First 
Bloom 


Date  of 

Full 
Bloom 


Clairgeau 

Kieffer 

Lawrence  .... 

LeConte 

Anjou 

Angouleme  .  .  . 
Bloodgood   .  .  . 

Tyson 

Clapp  Favorite 

Flemish 

Howell 

Patrick  Barry. 

Seckel 

Winter  Nelis .  . 

Lincoln 

Mt.  Vernon . .  . 


April  6 
March  29 
April  6 
March  29 
April  8 
April  9 
April  8 
April  9 
April  8 
April  10 
April  8 
April  8 
April  IT 
April  9 
April  6 
March  29 


Apri 
Apri 
Apri: 
Apri 
Apri 
Apri 
Apri: 
Apri: 
Apri 
Apri: 
Apri: 
Apri: 
Apri: 
Apri: 
Apri: 
April  II 


13 
II 

14 

8 

13 
15 
14 
18 
16 
15 
15 
18 
16 
20 
16 


It  is  impossible  to  divide  pears  into  arbitrary  classes  with 
reference  to  their  capacity  for  self-pollination.  A  variety 
'that,  in  one  locality,  is  self -sterile  may,  in  another  locality,  be 
self -fertile.  For  example,  in  most  parts  of  the  East  the  Bartlett 
seems  to  be  self -sterile  but  on  the  Pacific  coast  it  is  generally 
self-fertile.  However,  all  varieties  have  a  tendency  either  to 
be  self-sterile  or  self-fertile.  The  following  common  varieties 
are   more   or   less   self-sterile:     Angouleme,    Anjou,    Bartlett, 


18  PEAR  CULTURE  §  9 

Clairgeau,  Clapp  Favorite,  Howell,  Lawrence,  Sheldon,  and 
Winter  Nelis.  Common  varieties  that  have  a  tendency  to  be 
self -fertile  are :  Bosc,  Seckel,  Angouleme,  Flemish,  Kieffer,  and 
LeConte. 

The  best  plan  in  planting  pears  is  to  choose  at  least  two  or 
three  varieties,  the  blooming  periods  of  which  overlap,  and 
plant  these  in  oblong  blocks  of  four  rows  each.  This  will  insure 
proper  pollination.  Mr.  C.  I.  Lewis,  of  the  Oregon  Agricul- 
tural Experiment  Station,  has  collected  data  regarding  the 
average  date  of  the  first  bloom  and  of  iuR  bloom  of  the  common 
varieties  when  grown  in  Oregon.  Table  I  gives  this  data.  The 
blooming  time  of  a  partictilar  variety  varies,  of  course,  in  dif- 
ferent localities,  but  the  variation  is  much  the  same  in  the  case 
of  all  other  varieties. 

23.  Preparing  of  Trees  for  Planting. — If  pear  trees 
are  planted  in  the  fall,  winter,  or  very  early  spring,  the  tops 
should  not  be  pruned  until  the  trees  start  to  grow.  If  the 
tops  are  pruned  at  the  time  of  planting,  the  trees  may  suffer 
from  dieback  or  may  lose  buds  that  are  essential  to  the 
development  of  a  good  framework.  In  case  the  plant- 
ing is  done  in  late  spring  after  danger  of  freezing  is  past, 
the  tops  of  the  trees  may  be  pruned  at  the  time  of 
planting. 

Considerable  difference  of  opinion  exists  as  to  the 
proper  method  for  trimming  young  pear  trees  when 
they  are  set.  Different  trees  require  considerably  dif- 
ferent trimming;  consequently,  it  is  impossible  to  give 
specific  instructions  for  the  operation.  As  a  rule,  dwarfs 
and  small  1-year-old  trees  are  trimmed  to  a  whip, 
which  is  headed  back  to  about  a  2-foot  length,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  2  at  a.  Large  1-year-old  trees  and 
2-year-old  trees  are  cut  back  to  a  length  of  25  inches 
or  more,  depending  on  the  size  and  form  of  the  tree. 
Fig.  2  and  all  but  from  three  to  five  of  the  best  branches  that 
are  retained  are  cut  back  to  short  lengths.  This  method  of 
trimming  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  3;  in  (a)  is  shown  a  large  1-year- 
old  Cornice  tree  before  pruning;  in  (b),  a  1-year-old  Comice  tree 


Fig.  5 


21 


22  PEAR  CULTURE  §9 

after  pruning;  in  (c),  a  2-year-old  Winter  Nelis  tree  before 
pruning;  and  in  (d),  a  2-year-old  Winter  Nelis  tree  after  pru- 
ning. In  Fig.  4  (a)  is  shown  a  2-year-old  Bartlett  tree  before 
pruning;  in  (6),  a  2-year-old  Bartlett  tree  after  pruning;  in  (c), 
a  2-year-old  Cornice  tree  before  pruning ;  and  in  (J) ,  a  2-year-old 
Cornice  tree  after  pruning. 

The  roots  of  pear  trees  should  be  pruned  at  the  time  of  setting 
the  trees.  All  decayed  and  broken  roots  should  be  removed, 
and  the  long  roots  should  be  shortened,  from  about  one-third 
to  one-half  of  the  root  system  being  removed.  Fig.  5  illus- 
trates the  method  of  pruning  roots;  in  (a)  is  shown  the  roots 
of  a  Winter  Nelis  tree  before  pruning;  in  {b),  the  roots  of  a 
Winter  Nelis  tree  after  pruning;  in  (c),  the  roots  of  a  Comice 
tree  before  pruning;  and  in  (d),  the  roots  of  a  Comice  after 
pruning. 

Pear  trees  are  set  in  the  ground  in  much  the  same  way  as 
apple  trees,  the'  ground  being  staked  as  described  in  Apple 
Culture,  Part  1.  It  is  advisable,  when  possible,  to  have  all 
of  the  stock  at  hand  before  the  planting  is  begim,  so  that  if 
it  is  necessary  to  discard  any  trees  it  can  be  done  at  the  outset 
and  new  trees  ordered  to  take  the  place  of  those  not  desirable 
for  planting.  As  pears  are  generally  planted  on  clay  soils, 
it  is  better  not  to  dig  the  holes  until  just  before  the  trees  are 
to  be  set.  If  the  soil  is  very  stiff,  fairly  large  holes  should 
be  dug,  and  if  it  is  available,  good  top  soil  should  be  placed  in 
the  bottom  of  the  holes.  Although  on  certain  soils  it  might 
pay  to  put  some  water  in  the  holes  when  the  trees  are  planted, 
this  is  never  done  in  the  case  of  commercial  orchards.  When 
only  a  few  trees  are  planted,  however,  this  can  often  be  done 
to  advantage.  Standard  trees  should  generally  be  set  about 
2  inches  deeper  than  they  were  in  the  nursery,  and  great  care 
should  be  taken  to  set  them  firmly,  as  loosely-set  trees  often 
die.  Dwarf  trees  are  usually  planted  so  that  the  union  is 
about  level  with  the  surface  of  the  ground,  so  that  when  the 
soil  settles  the  imion  will  be  a  little  above  the  groimd. 


PEAR  CULTURE  23 


PEAR-ORCHARD  MANAGEMENT 


TILLAGE  OF  PEAR  ORCHARDS 


TILLAGE    OF    YOUNG    PEAR    ORCHARDS 

24.  Young  pear  orchards  are  cultivated  for  about  the  same 
purposes  and  in  much  the  same  manner  as  young  apple  orch- 
ards. In  the  case  of  pear  orchards,  however,  more  care  must 
be  taken  not  to  overstimulate  the  trees  by  too  much  cul- 
tivation than  in  the  case  of  apple  orchards;  overstimulation 
of  young  pear  trees  results  in  a  sappy  growth  of  wood,  which 
renders  them  very  susceptible  to  attacks  of  fire  blight. 

As  a  rule,  a  young  pear  orchard  should  be  plowed  each  spring, 
although  if  the  soil  is  very  light,  disking  may  be  practiced 
occasionally  instead.  The  disking  of  orchard  ground  as  a  sub- 
stitute for  plowing  is  not,  however,  practiced  as  extensively 
as  it  was  a  few  years  ago.  In  soils  of  good  tilth  that  are  not 
underlaid  with  a  stiff-clay  subsoil,  the  roots  of  the  trees  will 
have  a  tendency  to  grow  downwards  and  plowing,  if  com- 
menced when  the  trees  are  young  and  kept  up  for  several  years, 
will  remove  only  a  few  of  the  surface  roots,  thereby  encouraging 
the  remaining  roots  to  grow  deeply  into  the  ground,  a  condition 
that  is  desirable.  In  case  the  soil  is  underlaid  with  a  stiff-clay 
subsoil,  however,  the  roots  will  not  grow  deeply  into  the  ground 
but  will  extend  laterally  through  the  upper  soil;  in  such  cases 
plowing  may  cut  and  break  off  so  many  roots  that  the  trees 
will  be  injured.  Under  such  conditions  it  would  undoubtedly 
be  advisable  to  disk  the  ground  rather  than  to  plow  it. 

25.  It  is  important  for  young  pear  trees  to  make  a  steady 
growth,  especially  in  spring  and  early  summer.  This  growth 
should  not  be  a  puny,  sickly  one  on  the  one  hand,  or  an 


24  PEAR  CULTURE  §9 

over-luxuriant,  rapid  one  on  the  other  hand.  In  order  to 
secure  a  desirable  growth,  careful  attention  must  be  given  to 
the  orchard  in  the  spring.  On  heavy  soils  it  is  a  good  plan 
to  start  the  plowing  as  soon  as  the  ground  can  be  worked. 
On  light  soUs  plowing  should  not  be  started  until  the  weather 
has  become  settled,  as  early  plowing  in  the  case  of  such  soils 
tends  to  start  the  trees  into  activity,  causing  the  sap  to  rise, 
which  may  result  in  sun  scald,  sour  sap,  or  other  troubles. 
The  plowing,  in  either  case,  shordd  be  rather  deep. 

After  the  ground  has  been  plowed  the  soil  should  be  worked 
into  good  condition.  In  the  case  of  heav^^  soils  it  is  often  a 
good  plan  to  work  the  ground  with  a  disk  harrow  soon  after 
plowing  in  order  to  prevent  baking  of  the  soil.  A  spring-tooth 
harrow  will  be  found  to  be  of  value  where  there  is  considerable 
turf,  or  sod,  that  must  be  torn  to  pieces  after  plowing.  A  spike- 
tooth  harrow  is  effective  for  pulverizing  heavy  soils.  A  smooth- 
ing implement  such  as  the  Acme  harrow  or  the  Kimball  weeder 
is  very  desirable  for  orchard  work;  the  Kimball  weeder  is  a 
favorite  implement  on  the  Pacific  coast.  For  mashing  clods 
and  leveling  the  surface  of  the  ground,  the  common  drag  is 
useful.  If  a  drag  is  used  it  is  a  good  plan  to  make  it  in  two 
sections  and  fasten  these  together  side  by  side,  as  when  made 
in  this  way  a  drag  will  not  have  a  tendency  to  level  merely  the 
high  places.  An  implement  that  is  rapidly  coming  into  use 
on  the  Pacific  coast  for  orchard  cultivation  is  the  corrugated 
roller.  This  implement  grinds  up  the  soil  and  pulverizes  it 
very  efficiently.  It  will  save  a  lot  of  work,  especially  in  the 
case  of  clay  or  adobe  soils. 

After  the  ground  has  been  got  in  order  all  that  will  be  neces- 
sary, in  case  intercrops  are  not  grown,  will  be  to  harrow  it  at 
frequent  intervals  throughout  the  season.  The  nimiber  of 
harrowings  to  give  will  depend  on  the  soil,  climatic  conditions, 
etc.  In  general,  the  ground  should  be  harrowed  siifficiently 
often  to  prevent  weeds  from  growing  or  the  ground  from  baking. 
In  dry  regions,  great  care  should  be  given  to  the  ground  dur- 
ing June  and  Jidy,  so  that  weeds  and  baking  of  the  soil  will  not 
cause  moisture  to  be  lost.  However,  if  it  is  possible  to  cease 
cultivation  by  the  middle  of  July  or  the  first  of  August  it  should 


§  9  PEAR  CULTURE  25 

be  done.  There  is  no  advantage  to  be  gained  by  cultivating 
young  trees  after  they  have  made  desirable  growth  and  there 
are  many  disadvantages.  If  cultivated  further  the  trees  will 
be  encouraged  to  make  more  wood  growth,  which  is  not  wanted. 
It  is  best  to  have  the  trees  get  into  winter  condition  as  early  as 
possible. 

If  a  pear  grower  desires  to  grow  other  crops  between  the 
rows  of  trees  as  a  matter  of  economy,  this  may  be  done  for  a 
few  years  after  the  trees  are  set  without  any  detriment  to  the ' 
orchard,  provided  the  crop  is  such  as  to  require  thorough  culti- 
vation. To  grow  among  the  trees  the  first  season  after  plant- 
ing there  is  no  better  crop  than  com.  It  requires  thorough 
ciiltivation  and  affords  a  shade  to  the  young  trees  at  a  season 
when  they  most  need  protection  from  the  heat  of  the  sun. 
Other  crops,  such  as  potatoes,  cabbage,  peas,  beans,  melons,  etc., 
may  be  grown  to  advantage.  Small  grain  or  grasses  which  do 
not  require  ctdtivation  should  not  be  allowed  in  a  newly 
planted  orchard.  All  these  crops  take  from  the  soil  plant-food 
that  is  needed  for  the  orchard. 


TILLAGE    OF    BEARING    PEAR    ORCHARDS 

26.  As  soon  as  a  pear  orchard  comes  into  bearing  the  grow- 
ing of  intercrops  should  be  discontinued.  As  a  rule,  the  orchard 
should  be  plowed  in  early  spring  to  warm  up  the  soil  and  to 
facilitate  the  storage  of  moisture  from  spring  rains  in  the  sub- 
soil below.  Even  greater  care  should  be  taken  not  to  injure 
the  roots  of  bearing  trees  than  is  needed  in  the  care  of  young 
trees.  Shallow  surface  tillage  should  be  maintained  through- 
out the  season  by  means  of  harrows  or  other  stirring  implements. 


SOD    AND    MULCH    CULTURE 

27.  Sod  Culture. — ^Although  it  is  usually  advisable  to 
practice  clean  tillage  in  the  case  of  pear  orchards,  there  are 
certain  conditions  under  which  it  might  be  advisable  to  put 
an  orchard  in  sod.  In  many  parts  of  the  Eastern  and  Middle 
Western  States,   especially,   pear  trees  tend  to  make  a  very 


26  PEAR  CULTURE  §  9 

rapid  growth  and  consequently  are  extremely  susceptible  to 
attacks  of  the  fire  blight.  In  such  a  case  sod  cialture  is  to  be 
recommended,  as  it  will  tend  to  retard  the  growth  of  the  trees. 
Also,  many  pear  orchards  are  planted  on  steep  Mllsides  where, 
if  clean  tillage  were  practiced,  considerable  erosion  would  occur. 
Under  such  conditions,  sod  culture  would  be  much  preferable 
to  clean  tillage.  In  all  cases  where  sod  culture  is  practiced, 
however,  a  sufficient  growth  of  grass  should  be  secured  to 
maintain  a  thick  mulch. 

28.  MulchL  Culture. — ^When  pears  are  planted  on  very 
heavy  soils,  mulch  culture  is  often  particiilarly  advantageous. 
For  example,  on  the  Pacific  coast,  where  pears  are  often  grown 
on  heavy  adobe  soils  that  are  sticky  and  hard  to  handle,  it  is 
likely  that  in  many  cases  mulching  is  the  most  effective  and 
economical  method  of  soil  management.  However,  before 
adopting  the  mulch-culture  system,  a  grower  should  experiment 
on  a  small  part  of  his  orchard  in  order  to  ascertain  whether  or 
not  the  system  is  satisfactory. 

29.  Catch  Crops  and  Cover  Crops. — The  use  of  catch 
crops  and  cover  crops  in  orchards  has  already  been  discussed 
in  Apple  Culture,  Part  2.  The  information  given  in  the  Sec- 
tion referred  to  applies  also  to  pears;  consequently,  it  need  not 
be  repeated  here. 

PRUNING  OF  PEAR  TREES 

30.  The  principles  that  underlie  the  pruning  of  the  pear 
are  not  materially  different  from  those  that  underlie  the  pruning 
of  the  apple.  In  the  case  of  each  the  relation  of  bud  develop- 
ment to  fruiting  is  almost  identical  and  the  principle  of  building 
a  strong,  sturdy  tree  the  first  few  years  is  the  same.  It  is  com- 
monly believed  that  pear  trees  do  not  require  as  much  pruning 
as  apple  trees,  many  persons  holding  to  the  belief  that  pear 
trees  should  not  be  pruned  at  all.  It  is  true  that  the  pear  tree 
has  more  of  a  tendency  to  assimie  a  balance  between  the  top 
and  the  root  system  than  the  apple  tree,  and  that  the  former 
tends  more  to  produce  a  crop  annually  than  the  latter.     It  is 


§  9  PEAR  CULTURE  27 

true  also  that  as  color  is  not  as  important  in  pears  as  in  certain 
varieties  of  apples,  it  is  not  as  essential  to  prune  the  pear  tree 
for  the  admission  of  sunlight  to  the  fruit  as  it  is  to  prune  the 
trees  of  these  certain  varieties  of  apples  for  this  purpose.  Not- 
withstanding these  facts,  it  should  not  be  said  that  it  is  of  less 
importance  to  prune  the  pear  than  it  is  to  prune  the  apple. 

The  trees  of  varieties  like  the  Anjou  require  fairly  heavy 
pruning,  especially  during  the  first  few  years  after  they  com- 
mence to  bear.  Trees  of  varieties  like  the  Winter  Nelis  and 
the  Bosc  are  difficult  to  prune  during  their,  early  growth,  as 
they  grow  very  crooked  and  irregular.  Some  varieties  have 
an  upright  habit  of  growth  and  some  make  a  slender,  straggling 
growth.     All  need  attention  each  year. 

31.  Time  for  Pruning. — In  most  localities,  pears  are 
pruned  in  late  winter  or  early  spring.  In  parts  of  California 
and  in  some  of  the  Southern  States,  however,  pruning  is  done 
in  the  fall  without  any  bad  effects.  In  regions  where  cold 
periods  occur  it  is  advisable,  in  the  case  of  young  trees,  to  do 
the  pruning  in  spring  after  growth  has  started. 

The  proper  time  for  summer  pruning  varies  from  the  middle 
of  July  to  the  middle  of  September,  depending  on  the  vigor 
of  the  trees.  The  Oregon  Experiment  Station  has  found, 
after  limited  experimentation,  that  the  best  time  for  simimer 
pruning  of  pears,  except  the  Bartlett,  is  late  in  the  season  when 
the  trees  are  ceasing  their  vegetative  growth  and  the  terminal 
buds  are  becoming  plump;  the  indications  are  that  the  best 
time  to  prune  the  Bartlett  in  summer  is  in  June. 

32.  Metliods  of  Pruning. — Most  growers  now  favor  the 
low-headed  type  of  tree,  which  has  already  been  discussed 
in  a  previous  Section.  Of  this  type  of  tree  there  are  two  forms, 
the  pyramidal  headed  and  the  open  headed,  which,  also,  have 
already  been  described.  Most  pear  growers  at  the  present 
time  prune  for  the  open-headed  form  or  some  modification  of 
it,  as  pyramidal-headed  trees  are  difficiilt  to  manage  in  case 

-they  become  infected  with  fire  blight.  Many  western  pear 
growers  now  favor  what  is  known  as  the  modified-center  form 
of  open-headed  tree.     A  leader  is  allowed  to  grow  for  2  or 

248—31 


PEAR  CULTURE 


9 


3  years,   so  as  to  give  a  better   distribution  of  the  scaffold 
branches. 

Pruning  of  the  pear  should  be  begun  at  the  time  of  planting 
by  cutting  the  young  trees  back,  as  has  already  been  explained. 

This  cutting  back  will  cause  sev- 
eral of  the  upper  buds  to  grow, 
thus  starting  the  top,  or  head,  at 
the  proper  height.  The  young 
shoots  should  be  watched  and 
only  such  left  to  grow  as  are  to 
form  the  main  branches.  Strong 
shoots  that  tend  to  grow  oblique- 
ly outwards  should  be  selected 
for  retaining.  At  the  beginning 
of  the  second  year  these  shoots 
should  be  cut  back  to  the  extent 
of  about  one-half  of  their  growth, 
as  illustrated  in  Fig.  6,  the  lines 
showing  where  the  cuts  should 
be  made. 

The  same  plan  of  pruning 
should  be  continued  the  third 
and  fourth  years,  about  one- 
half  of  each  year's  growth  being 
removed.  Caution  should  be  ex- 
ercised, however,  to  study  each 
tree;  no  arbitrar}^  rule  can  be 
laid  down  for  pruning  trees.  In 
Fig.  7  (a)  is  shown  a  3-year-old 
Anjou  tree  before  being  pruned, 
and  in  (b)  is  shown  a  3-year-old 
Anjou  tree  after  being  pruned. 
Fig.  8  (a)  shows  a  4-year-old  Bart- 
lett  tree  before  being  pruned  and  (b)  shows  the  same  tree  after 
being  pruned.  When  the  growth  is  cut  back  the  top  bud  should 
be  one  on  the  side  of  the  branch  facing  the  direction  in  which 
the  growth  needs  to  be  diverted;  this  will  facilitate  shaping  the 
tree  into  the  form  desired. 


Fig.  6 


9 


PEAR  CULTURE 


29 


33.  When  pear  trees  reach  the  bearing  age,  they  should 
be  pruned  so  as  to  keep  them  from  becoming  too  rangy  and 
dense.  When  trees  tend  to  become  rangy,  the  terminal  growth 
of  some  of  the  leaders  should  be  cut  back  to  a  strong  lateral. 
If  this  method  of  pruning  is  followed  there  will  be  less  likelihood 
of  forcing  out  water  sprouts  and  sucker  growth  than  if  all  the 
leaders  are  cut  back  to  the  same  length.     If  a  tree  tends  to 


Fig.  7 

become  too  dense  or  the  wood  too  spindling,  some  of  the  weaker 
wood  should  be  thinned  out.  When  trees  have  a  tendency  to 
make  too  much  wood  growth,  it  is  advisable  not  to  prune  too 
heavily  in  the  spring.  The  best  plan  is  to  prune  pear  trees 
moderately  each  year,  so  that  excessive  pruning  will  not  be 
necessary.  In  Fig.  9  is  illustrated  a  Comice  tree  before  pni- 
ning.     Fig.  10  shows  the  same  tree  after  pruning.     Summer 


30 


PEAR  CULTURE 


9 


pruning  is  sometimes  practiced  in  pear  orchards  for  the  purpose 
of  overcoming  the  habit  that  the  trees  of  some  varieties  have  of 


Fig.  8 


bearing  the  fruit  on  the  end  of  the  twigs  of  the  previous  year's 
growth.  It  is  also  of  advantage  when  the  trees  are  growing 
too  much  wood  at  the  expense  of  the  fruit.     If  trees  are  pruned 


31 


32  PEAR  CULTURE  §9 

in  the  spring  and  again  in  the  siurmier  the  vegetative  vigor  can 
be  greatly  reduced.  In  sirmmer  pruning  the  usual  practice 
is  to  remove  from  about  one-third  to  one-half  of  the  terminal 
growth  of  that  season. 

MISCELLANEOUS  INFORMATION 

34.  Fertilizing  of  Pear  Orchards. — ^Little  attention 
has  been  paid  by  growers  to  the  fertilizing  of  pear  orchards, 
because  the  pear,  as  a  rule,  makes  a  too  rapid  growth  even 
without  fertilizer.  In  rare  cases  it  may  happen  that,  because 
of  some  unusual  condition  of  the  soil,  the  trees  will  not  make 
a  satisfactory  growth  or  will  not  produce  good  crops.  In  such 
instances  fertilizers  may  be  needed  to  correct  the  defect.  How- 
ever, before  applying  either  stable  manure  or  commercial  fer- 
tilizer to  a  pear  orchard,  a  grower  should  conduct  a  fertilizer 
experiment.  A  simple  experiment  is  as  follows:  (1)  On  one 
row  or  a  part  of  one  row  sufficient  to  give  accurate  data,  apply 
stable  manure  at  the  rate  of  1  ton  per  acre,  or  nitrate  of  soda 
or  high-grade  dried  blood  at  the  rate  of  75  pounds  per  acre. 
(2)  On  a  similar  area  apply  at  the  rate  of  200  pounds  per  acre 
either,  muriate  or  sulphate  of  potash,  or  1  ton  of  unleached 
wood  ashes.  (3)  On  a  similar  area  apply  at  the  rate  of  350 
pounds  per  acre  a  good  grade  of  acid  phosphate.  (4)  Apply  on 
a  similar  area  manure  or  nitrate  of  soda  as  recommended  in 
(1)  and  muriate  or  sulphate  of  potash  or  wood  ashes  as  recom- 
mended in  (2).  (5)  Apply  on  a  similar  area  manure  or  nitrate 
of  soda  as  recommended  in  (1)  and  acid  phosphate  as  recom- 
mended in  (3) .  (6)  Apply  on  a  similar  area  potash  or  wood 
ashes  as  recommended  in  (2)  and  acid  phosphate  as  recom- 
mended in  (3).  (7)  Apply  on  a  similar  area  the  materials 
recommended  in  (1),  (2),  and  (3).  (8)  Leave  a  row  or  a  part 
of  a  row  between  each  of  the  fertilized  plots  as  a  check  plot. 
This  experiment  is  much  more  simple  than  might  be  thought, 
as  the  fertilizer  combinations  are  built  up  one  from  another 
and  all  of  the  fertihzer  materials  named  are  easily  secured. 
In  order  to  supply  accurate  data,  the  experiment  shotild  be 
conducted  for  several  years. 


§  9  PEAR  CULTURE  33 

The  time  and  manner  of  applying  manure  or  commercial 
fertilizer  to  a  pear  orchard  are  the  same  as  in  the  case  of  the 
apple. 

35.  ThirLQing  of  Pears. — It  is  a  mistake  to  allow  pear 
trees  to  overbear,  as  the  fruit  will  be  small  and  the  trees  will 
be  likely  to  develop  a  tendency  to  bear  only  in  alternate  years. 
All  deformed,  inferior,  and  insect-infested  fruit,  as  well  as  per- 
fect fruit  that  is  less  than  from  4  to  6  inches  apart  on  the  limbs, 
should  be  removed  from  the  trees.  This  thinning  is  usually 
done  after  what  is  known  as  the  June  drop,  or  during  the  last 
of  June  or  the  first  of  July.  If  pears  are  thinned  the  remaining 
fruit  grows  much  larger  than  it  otherwise  would,  and  at  har- 
vesting time  a  grower  wiU  find  that  there  will  be  more  bushels 
of  first-grade  fruit  on  the  trees  than  if  the  pears  had  not  been 
thinned.  Besides,  the  trees  will  be  spared  from  bearing  an 
excessive  burden  and  will  be  more  likely  to  bear  a  crop  the  next 
year. 

36.  Renovation    of    Neglected    Pear    Orchards. — If 

neglected  pear  trees  are  not  too  old  and  still  have  sound  trunks 
they  can  often  be  brought  into  a  state  of  profitable  bearing. 
In  case  the  orchard  has  not  been  plowed  for  several  years  it  is 
doubtful  whether  it  would  be  advisable  to  plow  it,  because 
if  this  were  done  the  roots  of  the  trees  would  likely  be  severely 
injured.  In  general,  it  may  be  said  that  if  the  orchard  is  in 
a  region  where  it  is  difficult  to  obtain  sufficient  moisture,  the 
orchard  should  be  plowed,  but  otherwise  sod  or  mulch  culture 
should  be  practiced. 

The  tops  of  neglected  trees  should  not  be  pruned  too  heavily 
at  first,  as  this  would  result  in  a  heavy  growth  of  water  sprouts, 
which  would  be  unfavorable  to  fruit  production.  The  best 
plan  is  to  cut  out  all  weak  and  diseased  wood  at  the  dormant 
pruning  and  head  back  the  terminal  growth  moderately  by 
summer  pruning.  If  the  trees  are  too  high  headed  the  branches 
should  be  cut  back  to  a  strong  lateral.  In  case  the  trees  are 
of  undesirable  varieties,  they  can  be  top-worked  to  the  varieties 
desired. 


34  PEAR  CULTURE  §  9 


SPRAYING  OF  PEAR  TREES 

37.  The  various  diseases  and  insects  of  the  pear,  with  their 
control  meastires,  have  already  been  discussed  in  the  preceding 
Section.  It  is  not  the  purpose  here  to  repeat  the  information 
already  given,  but  rather  to  present  the  different  sprayings  in 
chronological  order.  The  following  sprayings  are  recommended 
for  the  pear : 

1.  Just  as  the  leaf  buds  are  swelling  but  before  they  are 
open,  spray  with  lime-sulphur  solution  of  a  specific  gravity 
of  1.03,  to  which  has  been  added  2  pounds  of  arsenate  of 
lead  to  each  50  gallons  of  the  spray  solution.  This  spray- 
ing is  for  the  control  of  the  San  Jose  scale  and  the  leaf -blister 
mite. 

2.  After  the  leaf  buds  are  open,  but  just  before  the  first 
blossoms  open,  spray  with  lime-sulphur  solution  of  a  specific 
gravity  of  1.006,  or  with  Bordeaux  mixture  made  by  mixing 
4  pounds  of  copper  sulphate,  4  pounds  of  lime,  and  50  gallons 
of  water.  This  spraying  is  for  the  control  of  the  pear  scab. 
The  remedies  for  pear  scab  vary  considerably  in  different  sec- 
tions; consequently,  it  is  advisable  for  a  grower  to  consult 
the  nearest  experiment  station  with  reference  to  the  control 
of  this  disease. 

3.  When  the  petals  of  the  blossoms  are  still  falling  and  the 
calyxes  are  still  open,  spray  with  from  2  to  3  pounds  of  arsenate 
of  lead  mixed  with  50  gallons  of  the  same  lime-sulphur  solution 
given  in  paragraph  2.  This  spraying  is  for  the  control  of  the 
codling  moth,  pear  scab,  and  any  other  fimgous  disease  present. 

4.  In  case  the  pear  psylla  is  present  in  the  locality,  spray, 
just  after  the  blossoms  have  fallen,  with  dilute  kerosene-soap 
emulsion,  made  by  mixing  1  part  of  kerosene-soap  stock  solu- 
tion and  6  parts  of  water;  or  spray  with  whale-oil  soap  made  by 
mixing  1  pound  of  whale-oil  soap  and  from  4  to  5  gallons  of 
water;  or  spray  with  one  of  the  tobacco  extracts,  using  a  2.7-per- 
cent, nicotine  preparation  diluted  with  from  65  to  100  parts 
of  water.  This  spraying  is  for  the  control  of  the  pear  psylla 
and  should  be  repeated  at  intervals  of  from  3  to  7  days  until 
the  insects  are  under  control. 


§  9  PEAR  CULTURE  35 

5.  From  10  to  14  days  after  the  spraying  described  in  para- 
graph 3,  spray  again  with  the  same  materials.  This  spraying 
is  principally  for  the  control  of  the  codling  moth  and  the  pear 
scab. 

6.  The  green  aphis  is  controlled  in  the  same  way  as  in  the 
case  of  the  apple.  This  pest  should  be  sprayed  for  as  soon  as 
it  appears,  before  the  leaves  curl,  and  is  easy  to  control  if  this 
rule  is  followed. 

HARVESTING,    STORING,    AND    MARKETING   OF 

PEARS 


HARVESTING 

38.  Picking  of  Pears. — It  is  often  somewhat  difficult 
to  determine  when  pears  are  ready  to  be  picked.  If  they  are 
allowed  to  hang  on  the  trees  too  long  they  will  develop  a  high 
color  but  become  mealy  in  texture.  On  the  other  hand,  if 
pears  are  picked  too  soon  they  will  shrivel  and  be  deficient  in 
flavor.  Most  pear  growers  make  the  mistake  of  allowing 
the  fruit  to  hang  on  the  trees  too  long.  As  a  rule,  as  soon  as 
pears  can  be  snapped  from  the  spurs  by  a  gentle  twist  they  are 
in  the  best  condition  for  picking.  Often  growers  pick  their 
pears  early  by  clipping  the  stems;  this  enables  them  to  take 
advantage  of  high  prices  that  prevail  early  in  the  season.  If 
a  person  is  experienced  in  picking  pears  this  practice  may  be 
followed  without  injury  to  the  fruit,  but  an  inexperienced  per- 
son is  likely  to  sustain  considerable  loss.  Pears  may  be  clipped 
early  if  the  picking  is  done  at  the  proper  time,  but  it  is  difficult 
to  determine  just  what  is  the  proper  time. 

About  the  same  picking  receptacles  are  used  for  pears  as  for 
apples.  Any  of  the  common  receptacles  will  prove  satisfac- 
tory, provided  the  picker  exercises  care  in  handling  the  fruit. 
When  unskilled  labor  is  employed,  however,  it  is  advisable 
to  provide  receptacles  that  will  minimize,  as  much  as  possible, 
the  likelihood  of  the  pears  being  injured.  A  desirable  form  of 
receptacle,  under  such  conditions,  is  the  common  galvanized- 
iron  pail.     Another  good  receptacle  is  a  basket  provided  with  a 


36  PEAR  CULTURE  §  9 

bail.  Pails  and  baskets  prevent  bruising  of  the  fruit  when  the 
pickers  are  descending  the  picking  ladders  and  besides,  may  be 
emptied  with  little  injury  to  the  pears. 

A  desirable  form  of  picking  ladder  is  the  Japanese  stepladder. 
The  Japanese  ladder  is  easy  to  handle  and  does  not  injure  the 
trees  like  some  other  ladders.  The  common  stepladder  also 
is  extensively  used  in  the  picking  of  pears.  Whatever  form  of 
ladder  is  chosen  it  should  be  such  as  not  to  injure  the  trees; 
this  is  a  A^ery  important  point  in  the  case  of  the  pear. 

As  has  already  been  stated,  pears  are  generally  picked  by 
simply  twisting  them  from  the  spurs.  Pickers  should  be 
cautioned  to  handle  the  fruit  with  the  greatest  possible  care, 
as  even  slight  bruises  may  be  very  damaging.  Pickers  soon 
acquire  the  ability  to  judge  size,  which  is  essential  to  good  pick- 
ing. Inexperienced  pickers  often  make  use  of  a  wire  ring  hung 
from  the  neck  with  a  cord  so  that  it  can  be  readily  applied  to 
a  pear;  if  the  inside  of  the  ring  is  made  the  size  of  the  smallest 
pear  to  be  picked,  any  pear  that  it  will  slip  over  without  touch- 
ing is  too  small  for  picking  and  should  be  allowed  to  remain 
on  the  tree  until  the  next  picking.  The  minimum  size  of  pears 
to  be  picked  will  depend  on  the  variety  and  on  the  locality. 
The  trees  are  usually  picked  over  a  number  of  times  until  all  of 
the  pears  have  been  harvested.  In  the  case  of  some  varieties  like 
the  Bartlett  the  picking  seasons  often  last  from  4  to  6  weeks. 

For  the  transporting  of  pears  from  the  orchard  to  the  packing 
shed,  crates  such  as  those  recommended  for  apples  will  be  foimd 
satisfactory.  A  low  wagon  provided  with  springs  can  be  used 
for  hauling  the  fruit  from  the  orchard. 

Perhaps  the  best  system  for  the  management  of  pickers  is  to 
hire  them  by  the  day  and  pay  them  at  the  end  of  each  week. 
It  is  essential  that  extreme  care  be  exercised  in  the  handling 
of  pears,  and  for  this  reason  it  is  not  advisable  to  hire  pickers 
at  a  certain  rate  per  bushel,  as  in  this  case  they  are  lilcely  to  do 
the  work  carelessly  in  order  to  pick  a  large  quantity  of  fruit. 
Often  it  is  a  good  plan  to  provide  each  picker  with  tickets  or 
coupons,  one  of  which  is  to  be  placed  in  each  orchard  box  of 
fruit  picked.  This  will  enable  the  foreman  to  ascertain  the 
quality  of  work  that  each  picker  is  doing. 


§  9  PEAR  CULTURE  37 

39.  Grading  of  Pears. — It  has  been  proved  by  experience 
that  there  is  less  profit  in  the  grading  of  pears  than  in  the  gra- 
ding of  almost  any  other  kind  of  fruit.  Pears  of  the  same  variety 
that  are  grown  under  similar  conditions  are,  as  a  rule,  fairly 
uniform  in  size,  and  do  not  require  much  grading.  Notwith- 
standing this  statement,  it  will  usually  be  found  that  simple 
grading  is  profitable.  Obviously,  pears  that  are  undersized, 
infested  with  insects,  deformed,  or  blemished  in  any  way  should 
not  be  packed  with  first-class  pears.  The  grading  that  is 
required,  however,  can  be  done  by  the  packer,  a  special  assorting 
of  the  fruit  not  being  necessary. 

Most  of  the  prominent  growers  and  fruit  associations  sort 
pears  into  two  grades  known  as  fancy  and  choice.  Following 
are  the  specifications  of  the  Yakima  Valley  Fruit  Growers 
Association  for  the  two  grades: 

In  order  to  be  graded  as  fancy,  Bartlett,  Anjou,  Comice, 
Flemish,  Clapp  Favorite,  Clairgeau,  and  pears  of  kindred 
varieties  must  be  not  smaller  than  2|  inches  in  diameter; 
Winter  Nelis  pears  must  not  be  smaller  than  If  inches  in 
diameter.  All  fruit  must  be  free  from  worms,  insect  stings, 
scale,  picking  bruises,  blemishes,  evidence  of  rough  handling, 
scab,  or  deformity  of  any  kind  whatever. 

Pears,  in  order  to  be  graded  as  clioice,  must  be  sound,  free 
from  worms,  insect  stings,  scale,  and  disease;  slightly  mis- 
shapen pears,  or  those  showing  limb  rub  or  other  like  defects, 
may  be  included.  No  pears  less  than  2|  inches  in  diameter, 
except  Winter  Nelis,  shall  be  accepted.  In  fact,  stock  in  this 
grade  must  be  only  a  little  below  fancy. 

40.  Packing  of  Pears. — ^Pears  are  packed  in  a  great 
many  different  kinds  of  packages.  On  the  Pacific  coast  the 
pear  box  is  the  commonest  package  for  fancy  and  choice  fruit. 
The  standard  box  is  usually  18  inches  long,  8|  inches  deep, 
and  11|  inches  wide;  the  half  box  is  usually  of  the  same  width 
and  length  as  the  standard  box  but  is  only  half  as  deep.  A 
standard  box  when  packed  with  fruit  weighs  approximately 
50  pounds,  and  the  half  box  about  half  as  much.  Kieffer  pears 
are  often  packed  in  barrels  and  hah  barrels.     Bushel  baskets 


38  PEAR  CULTURE  §  9 

also  are  commonly  used  in  the  East  and  Middle  West  for  pack- 
ing Kieffers;  this  form  of  package  is  popular  for  all  varieties 
when  the  fruit  is  intended  for  local  sale.  In  New  York  State, 
growers  of  Seckel  pears  often  use  a  keg  for  packing  the  fruit. 
Sometimes  pears  are  marketed  in  large  Climax  baskets,  in 
which  case  they  are  generally  packed  in  crates,  or  carriers, 
that  hold  a  dozen  or  more  of  the  baskets.  In  case  pears  are 
to  be  sold  on  the  local  market,  and  consequently  do  not  have 
to  be  shipped,  they  are  sold  in  bushel  and  half-bushel  baskets, 
light  barrels,  etc. 

41.  Before  being  packed  in  boxes,  pears  shoiild  be  graded 
to  size  and  quality.  Each  pear  should  be  wrapped  in  paper 
and  placed  in  the  box  with  the  blossom  end  of  the  pear  toward 
the  end  of  the  box.  Each  pear  should  be  placed  firmly  in  posi- 
tion and  pressed  down  so  that  it  fits  snugly  and  cannot  be  shaken 
from  side  to  side  when  the  box  is  moved.  Usually,  a  pear  is 
picked  up  with  the  left  hand  from  a  box  of  loose  pears,  and 
paper  from  the  paper  rack  is  picked  up  with  the  right  hand. 
The  ■  pear  is  placed  in  the  paper  in  the  right  hand  with  one 
motion,  the  paper  closed  around  the  pear  with  both  hands, 
and  the  pear  placed  in  position  in  the  box.  The  packer  usually 
has  a  place  near  a  window  so  that  he  can  have  plenty  of  light. 
Each  packer  is  provided  with  a  box  of  loose  pears  from  which 
he  packs,  another  box  for  culls,  and  two  or  three'boxes  that  he 
is  packing  at  one  time. 

Packing  of  pears  in  boxes  has  not  been  standardized  as  much 
as  the  box  packing  of  apples.  However,  recently  a  number  of 
the  western  fruit  associations  have  adopted  standards  for  box 
pear  packs.  In  general,  the  packing  of  pears  in  boxes  is  so 
similar  to  apple  packing,  which  has  already  been  described 
in  a  previous  Section,  that  a  detailed  discussion  is  unnecessary. 
The  style  of  pack  in  general  vogue  is  the  diagonal  pack.  The 
number  of  rows,  tiers,  and  layers  will  depend,  of  course,  on  the 
size  of  the  pears.  Perhaps  the  packs  most  often  used  are  the 
2-2,  3-2,  and  3-3.  Fig.  11  (a)  shows  a  2-2  pack;  (b),  a  3-2 
pack;  and  (c),  a  3-3  pack.  The  method  of  making  these  packs 
is  the  same  as  in  apple  packing. 


PEAR  CULTURE 


39 


In  the  case  of  pears,  greater  bulge  is  given  to  the  box  than 
in  the  case  of  apples;  the  bulge  should,  as  a  rule,  be  about 
f  inch  at  both  the  top  and  bottom.  The  boxes  are  often  lined 
with  paper,  the  top  layer  of  fruit  being  covered  with  lace  paper. 
The  method  of  nailing  the  boxes  is  the  same  as  described  for 
apples. 

When  pears  are  properly  packed  in  boxes  they  can  be  shipped 
any  distance  if  handled  and  braced  properly.     The  bulge  is 


only  on  the  top  and  bottom  of  the  box;  consequently,  the 
boxes  should  always  be  placed  on  their  sides.  This  effectually 
prevents  crushing  of  the  fruit. 

42.  When  baskets  are  used  for  packing,  the  top  layer  is 
usually  arranged  so  as  to  give  a  neat  appearance  to  the  pack- 
age. When  carriers  are  used  some  effort  is  generally  made  to 
put  the  pears  in  regular  order.  If  kegs  or  half  barrels  are  used 
the  pears  are  occasionally  laid  in  individually,  the  stems  point- 
ing inwards  and  the  calyxes  toward  the  outside  of  the  keg 
or  barrel;  sometimes  this  system  is  varied  by  placing  the  first 
row  so  the  stems  point  inwards  and  the  second  row  so  that  they 
point  outwards.  When  barrels  are  used,  about  the  only  placing 
of  specimens  that  is  done  is  in  producing  the  face  of  the  barrel. 


40  PEAR  CULTURE  §  9 


STORING 

43.  Because  of  the  relatively  small  output  of  pears,  not 
as  much  experience  has  been  gained  in  the  storing  of  this  fruit 
as  in  the  storing  of  apples.  However,  the  experience  that  has 
been  gained  has  proved  that  pears  can  often  be  as  successfully 
and  profitably  handled  in  cold  storage  as  apples.  If  pears  are 
picked  without  injury,  packed  in  a  cool  place,  and  stored  where 
a  sufficiently  low  temperature  can  be  maintained,  they  can  be 
kept  for  months.  But  if  pears  are  bruised  in  handling  and  then 
exposed  to  a  warm  temperature  in  packing  they  will  be  almost 
sure  to  deteriorate  if  placed  in  cold  storage.  If  pears  are  held 
at  about  32°  F.,  they  seem  to  hold  up  much  better  than  if  they 
are  held  at  a  higher  temperature.  Also,  if  they  are  wrapped 
in  paper,  they  will  hold  up  better  than  if  not  wrapped. 

Pears  improve  in  quality,  flavor,  and  lusciousness  while  in 
storage,  provided  they  have  been  picked  before  ripening. 
Pears  that  have  developed  to  a  proper  size  on  the  trees, 
although  hard  and  of  seemingly  poor  quality  for  eating,  wiU, 
in  a  few  weeks  or  months,  develop  or  ripen  to  their  very  finest 
condition. 

Pears,  like  apples,  can  be  maintained  fairly  well  in  home 
storage,  that  is,  in  cellars  or  in  specially  constructed  storage 
houses.  They  should  be  wrapped  in  paper,  as  in  cold  storage. 
As  a  rule,  however,  pears  cannot  be  kept  much  after  Thanks- 
giving in  home  storage. 

MARKETING 

44.  The  pear  is  not  as  well  known  in  fruit  markets  as  the 
apple.  This  is  largely  due  to  small  production,  careless  packing, 
and  unfamiliarity  on  the  part  of  the  public  with  the  best  vari- 
eties. However,  the  pear  is  rapidly  increasing  in  popularity 
and  there  is  reason  for  the  belief  of  many  authorities  that  the 
marketing  of  pears  at  remunerative  prices  will  become  less 
difficult  each  year. 

Pears  are  marketed  in  the  same  way  as  apples,  consequently 
little  discussion  of  this  subject  is  necessary.  Each  grower 
must  determine  after  a  study  of  his  own  conditions  whether 


§  9  PEAR  CULTURE  41 

it  will  be  more  profitable  to  sell  the  fruit  on  the  local  market 
or  to  consign  it  to  a  wholesaler.  In  the  case  of  large  orchards, 
it  is  often  the  best  plan  to  sell  the  entire  crop  to  a  buyer  for 
a  commission  house.  In  the  case  of  small  orchards,  the  best 
prices  can  often  be  obtained  by  building  up  a  special  retail 
trade.  A  great  deal  of  fruit  is  now  being  handled  by  asso- 
ciations, which  sell  to  wholesale  buyers,  thus  eliminating  the 
local  dealers.  When  fruit  is  handled  in  this  way  the  grower 
must  wait  until  the  association  receives  pay  for  the  fruit  and  can 
apportion  it  to  each  grower.  This  is  because  the  association 
usually  has  a  large  number  of  small  lots  that  must  be  sorted 
so  as  to  ship  as  many  pears  of  one  kind,  pack,  and  grade  in 
one  shipment  as  are  required.  In  many  cases  it  is  an  advantage 
to  ship  only  one  variety  of  pears  in  a  carload  lot. 

Many  growers  make  the  mistake  of  shipping  their  pears  to 
markets  that  are  glutted  with  fruit  or  that  do  not  have  a  demand 
for  the  particular  variety  or  varieties  the  grower  has  to  sell. 
It  is  always  advisable  to  know  as  much  as  possible  about  the 
conditions  and  demands  of  a  market  before  shipping  fruit  to  it. 
This  information  can  be  obtained  by  corresponding  with  reliable 
dealers. 

Fancy  and  choice  pears  should  be  put  up  in  an  attractive 
package  and  be  properly  labeled,  so  that  the  prospective  cus- 
tomers will  know  where  and  by  whom  the  fruit  was  grown. 
Cull  pears  can  often  be  disposed  of  to  canneries  at  prices  almost 
equal  to  those  obtainable  for  fancy  and  choice  grades. 


CHERRIES,  APRICOTS,  AND 
QUINCES 


CHERRIES 


CLASSES  OF  CHERRIES 

1.  For  convenience  cherries  ma}^  be  divided  according  to 
the  acidity  of  the  fruit  into  three  classes — sour  cherries,  sub- 
acid cherries,  and  sweet  cherries.  There  is,  however,  much 
overlapping,  and  often  it  is  somewhat  difficult  to  determine 
the  class  to  which  a  variety  belongs.  The  Pacific  Coast  States 
produce  most  of  the  sweet  and  subacid  cherries  that  appear 
on  the  market.  Recently,  however,  certain  districts  along  the 
shores  of  Lake  Michigan  have  begun  to  compete  with  the 
Pacific  Coast  States  in  the  production  of  sweet  cherries. 
Throughout  the  Middle  West  and  in  the  Eastern  States  most 
of  the  cherries  grown  are  of  the  sour  varieties. 

2.  The  sour  clierries  most  frequently  grown  belong  to 
two  general  groups:  (1)  the  amarelles,  which  are  light-colored 
cherries  with  slightly  flattened  ends  and  have  a  colorless  juice; 
and  (2)  the  morellos,  which  are  dark-colored  cherries  of  heart 
or  of  spherical  shape  and  have  a  dark-colored  juice.  The  number 
of  new  varieties  of  sour  cherries  is  being  increased  b}^  propa- 
gation from  seed  in  the  Eastern  and  the  Central  States  and  by 
importations  from  Russia  and  other  parts  of  Europe. 

As  a  class,  the  sour  cherry  trees  are  characterized  by  a  low, 
round-headed  type  of  growth  and  have  the  habit  of  suckering 

COPYRIGHTED    BY    INTERNATIONAL    TEXTBOOK    COMPANY.       ALL    RIGHTS    RESERVED 

§20 

248—32 


2  CHERRIES,  APRICOTS,  AND  QUINCES        §  20 

from  the  roots;  the  flowers  are  in  small  clusters  from  lateral 
buds  and  generally  appear  before  the  foliage;  the  leaves  arc 
light  or  grayish  green,  are  narrowed  to  a  point,  and  are  hard; 
the  fruit  is  roundish  and  always  red;  the  flesh  is  soft  and  sour. 

3.  The  subacid  cherries  are  those  that  cannot  be  called 
either  sour  or  sweet  and  they  belong  to  a  small  group  known 
as  the  dukes  group.  The  varieties  of  this  group  are  believed 
by  some  of  the  best  horticulturists  to  have  originated  from 
the  crossing  of  sweet  and  sour  cherries.  In  type  of  tree  gro^vth, 
in  flowers  and  foliage,  and  in  shape  of  the  fruit  the  varieties 
of  the  dukes  group  resemble  the  sweet  cherries,  but  in  flavor 
the  fruit  resembles  sour  cherries  more  nearly  than  sweet,  being 
subacid  and  in  some  cases  fairly  acid.  The  fruit  of  the  dukes 
is  heart  shaped,  excellent  in  flavor,  juicy,  and  usually  tender. 
However,  the  fruit  is  subject  to  rot  and  ships  very  poorly, 
and  for  these  reasons  the  cherries  of  the  dukes  group  are  not 
grown  so  extensively  as  those  of  other  groups.  One  very 
undesirable  feature  of  this  group  of  cherries  is  that  all  the  fruit 
on  a  tree  does  not  ripen  at  about  the  same  time,  the  ripening 
period  extending  over  a  considerable  length  of  time. 

4.  The  sweet  clierries  grown  in  the  United  States  belong 
to  three  groups:  (1)  the  mazzard  group,  which  includes  the 
common  native  sweet  cherries  of  the  Eastern  States  and  the 
mazzard  seedlings  that  are  imported  from  Europe  and  used  by 
nurserymen  for  stocks;  (2)  the  heart,  or  gean  group,  the  fruit  of 
which  is  usually  heart  shaped  and  has  soft  flesh;  and  (3)  the 
higarreau  group,  the  fruit  of  which  is  heart  shaped,  hard 
fleshed,  and  of  a  light  color,  the  typical  fruit  being  light  red 
on  one  side  and  whitish  or  lemon  colored  on  the  reverse  side. 

As  a  class,  sweet  cherry  trees  are  characterized  by  having  a 
tall-growing  and  erect  habit  and  a  bark  that  tends  to  peel 
somewhat  like  the  bark  of  a  birch  tree;  the  flowers  are  flimsy 
and  appear  in  clusters  on  spurs  with  the  foliage;  the  leaves  are 
large  and  usually  limp  and  gradually  taper  to  a  point;  the 
fruit  is  variously  colored,  and  may  be  either  spherical  or  heart 
shaped ;  the  flesh  may  be  either  hard  or  soft  and  is  generally 
sweet. 


Fig.  1 


§20        CHERRIES,  APRICOTS,  AND  QUINCES  3 

5.  Important  Varieties  of  Sour  Cherries. — The  follow- 
ing is  a  list  of  some  of  the  important  varieties  of  sour  cherries, 
with  a  brief  description  of  each  variety: 

The  Baldwin,  which  is  a  variety  of  the  morello  group,  is 
regarded  as  promising.  The  trees  of  this  variety  have  stout, 
spreading  tops  and  are  good  bearers.  The  fruit  ripens  in  mid- 
season  and  is  of  good  size  and  quality. 

The  Briisseler  Braune  is  a  variety  of  Russian  origin. 
The  trees  of  this  variety  are  meditim  to  large  in  size,  upright 
in  growth,  and  have  long,  slender  branches.  In  some  sections 
of  the  country  the  trees  of  this  variety  have  been  found  to  be 
poor  bearers.  The  fruit,  which  is  illustrated  in  the  lower  part 
of  Fig.  1,  is  very  late  in  ripening.  It  is  medium  in  size  and 
quality,  and  is  astringent. 

The  Dyehoiise  is  a  variety  of  the  amarelle  group.  The 
trees  of  this  variety  are  not  so  vigorous  as  those  of  the 
Montmorency  variety,  which  will  be  described  later.  The 
fruit  of  the  Dyehouse  is  medium  to  small  in  size  and  light 
red  in  color.  The  flavor  is  slightly  acid  and  the  quality  is 
very  good. 

The  Morello,  or  English  Morello,  is,  as  the  name  indicates,  a 
variety  of  the  morello  group  and  is  one  of  the  oldest  and  best 
varieties  of  sour  cherries  grown  in  the  eastern  part  of  the 
United  States.  The  trees  are  mediimi  in  size,  slender  but 
spreading  in  growth,  and  are  hardy.  The  fruit  is  medium  in 
size,  roundish  in  shape,  and  of  a  reddish-black  color.  It  is 
very  sour  and  slightly  astringent.  The  flesh  and  juice  are  dark. 
The  fruit  is  firm  and  has  excellent  shipping  qualities. 

The  Montmorency,  a  variety  of  the  amarelle  group,  is  the 
standard  variety  of  sour  cherries  grown  in  the  United  States. 
There  are  two  strains  of  Montmorency,  the  Long-stemmed  Mont- 
morency, or  the  Montmorency  Ordinaire,  and  the  Short-stemmed 
Montmorency.  The  Short-stemmed  Montmorency,  however,  is 
little  grown  in  the  United  States.  The  Long-stemmed  Mont- 
morency is  the  one  sold  by  nurserymen  and  is  the  one  to  which 
the  following  description  refers.  This  is  the  variety  desired  by 
canners.  The  trees  are  hardy,  good  bearers,  and  come  into 
bearing  early.     The  fruit,  which  is  illustrated  in  the  upper  part 


CHERRIES,  APRICOTS,  AND  QUINCES 


20 


of  Fig.  1,  ripens  in  mid-season,  is  of  medium  size  and  of  a  rich 
dark-red  color.     It  is  acid  and  very  good  in  flavor. 

The  Ostlieim  is  a  variety  of  the  morello  group,  and  really 
consists  of  a  nimiber  of  strains.  The  variety  has  been  grown 
in  the  United  States  for  nearly  a  century.     The  trees  are  slender 


Fig.  2 

in  growth  but  are  very  hardy.  The  fruit  is  large  and  round  and 
of  dark,  reddish-brown  color.  It  is  juicy,  medium  acid  in 
flavor,  and  moderately  good  in  quality.  The  skin  is  tough. 
The  Phillippe,  or  Louis  PhilUppe,  is  a  variety  of  the  morello 
group.     The  trees  of  this  variety  are  upright  and  spreading  in 


§20        CHERRIES,  APRICOTS,  AND  QUINCES  5 

growth  and  are  said  to  be  productive.  The  fruit  is  medium  to 
late  in  ripening,  of  medium  size  and  good  quaHty  and  is  dark 
re4  in  color.     It  is  acid  and  has  tender  red  flesh. 

The  Riclnnond,  or  Early  Richmond,  is  a  well-known  variety 
of  the  amarelle  group.  The  trees  of  this  variety  are  hardy, 
vigorous,  and  profuse  and  regular  bearers,  but  are  inclined  to 
be  short  lived.  The  fruit,  which  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  2,  ripens 
early  or  moderately  earl}^  in  the  season.  It  is  of  medium  size, 
light  red  in  color,  acid,  very  juicy,  and  rather  rich  in  quality. 
The  fruit  keeps  only  a  short  time  after  being  picked,  and  is 
therefore  fit  only  for  local-market  and  home  use. 

The  Suda  is  a  variety  of  the  morello  group.  The  trees  of 
this  variety  resemble  those  of  the  English  Morello  but  are  more 
upright  in  growth.  They  are  profitable  bearers  in  some  sec- 
tions. The  fruit  of  this  variety  can  hardly  be  distinguished 
from  that  of  the  English  Morello. 

The  Wragg  is  a  standard  variety  of  the  morello  group.  The 
trees  resemble  those  of  the  English  Morello  variety.  The 
fruit  also  resembles  that  of  the  English  Morello,  but  is  a  little 
larger  and  is  somewhat  later  in  ripening.  By  some  authorities, 
this  variety  is  considered  identical  with  the  English  Morello. 

6.     Important   Varieties   of   Subacid    Clierries.^ — The 

following  is  a  list  of  some  of  the  most  important  varieties  of 
the  dukes  group  and  a  brief  description  of  each  variety: 

The  trees  of  the  variety  Eugene  are  upright  in  growth  and 
fairly  productive,  but  lack  in  vigor.  The  fruit  of  this  variety 
is  among  the  earliest  to  ripen  and  lasts  over  a  long  season. 
The  fruit  is  medium  to  large  in  size,  amber  red  in  color,  and  has 
a  fine  flavor.     The  flesh  and  juice  are  dark. 

The  Hortense,  or  Reine  Hortense,  is  a  variety  that  is  char- 
acterized by  trees  that  are  good  growers  and  universal  bearers. 
The  fruit  of  this  variety  is  among  the  largest  of  all  cherries. 
It  is  heart  shaped  and  of  a  beautiful  glossy  red,  or  a  deep  pink 
color.  It  is  excellent  for  canning,  but  is  too  soft  and  juicy  for 
shipment. 

The  Magnifique  is  a  productive  variety.  The  trees  are 
Upright  and  spreading  in  growth.     The  fruit  is  among  the  latest 


G  CHERRIES,  APRICOTS,  AND  QUINCES        §  iM) 

of  the  cherries  to  ripen,  and  for  this  reason  it  is  of  value.  The 
fruit  is  too  small  and  of  too  light  a  shade  of  red  to  take  well  in 
the  market.  It  is  firm,  juicy,  and  of  mild  flavor,  but  is  not  of 
the  highest  quality.     The  flesh  is  pale  yellow  in  color. 

The  May  Diike  is  one  of  the  most  popular  varieties  of  the 
subacid  cherries.  The  trees  are  hardy,  vigorous  growers, 
and  productive.  The  fruit  is  among  the  earliest  cherries  to 
ripen  and  tends  to  ripen  over  a  long  season.  It  is  large,  of  a 
dark-red  color,  very  rich  and  juicy,  of  acid  flavor,  and  excellent 
when  ripe. 

The  Montr euil,  or  Belle  de  Montreuil,  is  a  comparatively 
new  variety.  The  trees  are  vigorous,  free  from  disease,  upright, 
spreading  in  growth,  and  productive.  The  fruit  is  glossy  dark 
red,  almost  black.  The  flesh  and  juice  is  dark  red.  The  fruit 
is  medium  in  quality. 

The  Olivet  is  a  variety  that  is  frequently  reported  as  impro- 
ductive.  The  trees,  however,  are  strong,  spreading  growers. 
This  variety  was  produced  by  a  cross  between  a  duke  and  a 
morello.  The  fruit  is  large  and  of  a  dark-red  color.  It  ripens 
early,  is  of  good  quality,  and  is  especially  good  for  canning. 

7.     Important     Varieties    of    Sweet     Cherries. — The 

following  is  a  list  and  a  brief  description  of  some  of  the  most 
important  varieties  of  sweet  cherries: 

The  Bing-  is  a  variety  of  the  bigarreau  group  that  is  regarded 
as  promising.  The  trees  are  strong  growers.  The  fruit  ripens 
in  mid-season,  is  very  large,  almost  black  in  color,  firm  fleshed, 
and  of  high  quality. 

The  Centennial  is  a  variety  of  the  bigarreau  group,  and 
is  said  to  be  a  seedling  of  the  Napoleon,  a  variety  that  will  be 
described  later.  The  trees  of  the  Centennial  variety  are  vigor- 
ous, productive,  and  fairly  hardy.  The  fruit  is  large  in  size 
and  ripens  late.  In  color,  it  is  yellow,  marbled  with  crimson. 
It  is  very  sweet  and  is  a  good  shipper.  This  variety  is  con- 
sidered promising,  especially  on  the  Pacific  coast. 

The  Elton  is  a  variety  of  the  heart  group.  The  trees  of 
the  variety  are  good  growers  but  in  some  parts  of  the  country 
are  found  to  lack  in  productiveness.     The  fruit  ripens  about 


§  20        CHERRIES,  APRICOTS,  AND  QUINCES  7 

mid-season.  It  is  very  large,  heart  shaped,  and  of  a  pale 
yellow  color  with  a  red  blush.  The  fruit  is  of  the  best  quality, 
but  is  subject  to  rot  and  is  therefore  not  a  good  shipper, 
although  it  is  excellent  for  home  use.  The  flesh  is  light  colored 
and  firm. 

The  Lambert,  which  originated  in  Oregon,  is  a  variety  of 
the  bigarreau  group.  The  trees  are  hardy,  vigorous,  and  strong 
growers.  The  fruit  is  large  to  very  large  and  heart  shaped;  in 
color,  it  is  dark  amber,  turning  to  a  dark  red  as  the  fruit 
matures.  The  flesh  is  dark,  rich,  firm,  juicy,  and  of  good  flavor. 
The  pit  of  this  cherry  is  small  for  the  size  of  the  fruit. 

One  of  the  most  popular  sweet  cherries  is  the  Napoleon; 
also  called  the  Royal  Ann,  a  variety  of  the  bigarreau  group. 
The  trees  of  this  variety  are  strong  and  vigorous  in  growth 
and  very  productive.  The  fruit,  which  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  3, 
ripens  about  mid-season.  It  is  large  and  in  color  yellow 
shaded  with  red.  The  flesh  is  light  colored,  firm,  juicy,  and  of 
good  quality. 

The  Rockport  is  a  variety  of  the  bigarreau  group.  The 
trees  are  moderate  to  vigorous  in  growth.  The  fruit  ripens 
between  early  and  mid-season.  It  is  large,  heart  shaped,  and 
red  shaded  with  amber.  The  quality  is  very  good.  The  fiesh 
is  firm  and  juicy. 

An  old  and  well-known  variety  that  does  well  under  many 
conditions  is  the  Spaiiish,  or  Yellow  Spanish,  which  is  a  variety 
of  the  bigarreau  group.  The  trees  of  this  variety  are  strong 
growers  and  are  productive.  The  fruit  ripens  from  mid-season 
to  late,  is  large,  and  of  a  pale,  waxy-yellow  color  with  a  red 
blush.     It  is  of  good  quality. 

The  Tartarian,  or  Black  Tartarian,  is  one  of  the  oldest  and 
most  popular  varieties  of  the  heart  group.  The  trees  lack  in 
vigor  and  hardiness  when  compared  with  those  of  some  other 
varieties  of  the  group.  The  fruit,  which  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  4, 
is  very  large,  dark  red  in  color,  and  mildly  sweet.  It  is  of  good 
quality  and  generally  brings  high  prices. 

One  of  the  new  varieties  that  has  made  a  good  reputation  is 
the  Windsor,  which  is  a  variety  of  the  bigarreau  group.  This 
variety  originated  in  Ontario  and  some  of  the  best  growers  have 


Fig.  3 


Fig.  4 


10  CHERRIES,  APRICOTS,  AND  QUINCES        §  20 

recommended  it  as  a  variety  that  should  be  included  in  nearly 
all  cherry  orchards.  The  trees  are  hardy,  vigorous,  and  very 
productive.  The  fruit  tends  to  ripen  late,  is  heart  shaped, 
dark  reddish  brown,  and  of  fine  quality.  The  flesh  is  firm  and 
of  a  dark-red  color. 

A  variety  that  is  recommended  for  home  use  and  for  near-by 
markets  is  the  Wood,  also  called  Governor  Wood,  which  is  a 
variety  of  the  heart  group.  The  trees  of  this  variety  are 
strong,  vigorous  growers,  and  are  productive.  The  fruit 
ripens  early,  is  medium  to  large  in  size,  and  in  color  is  pale 
yellow  with  a  reddish  blush.  The  fruit  is  of  good  quality  but 
is  subject  to  rot.     The  flesh  is  tender  and  juicy. 


CHERRY-ORCHARD  ESTABLISHMENT 


SIZE,    LOCATION,    AND    SITE 

8.  size. — Throughout  the  greater  part  of  the  country 
few  cherry  orchards  of  more  than  10  acres  in  extent  exist.  In 
some  of  the  Pacific  Coast  States,  however,  extensive  orchards 
of  sweet  cherries  have  been  under  cultivation  for  some  years. 
Recently  some  large  orchards  of  sour  cherries  ranging  in  size 
vip  to  150  acres  have  been  planted  in  Ontario  and  Quebec,  in 
parts  of  New  York  and  Pennsylvania,  along  the  shores  of  Lake 
Michigan,  and  in  the  vicinity  of  St.  Louis.  One  such  orchard 
in  Western  New  York  consists  of  50  acres  of  Early  Richmond, 
50  acres  of  Montmorency,  and  50  acres  of  English  Morello. 

9.  Location. — As  has  been  said,  the  area  in  which  cherries 
may  be  grown  is  widely  distributed  throughout  the  United 
States  and  Canada.  There  are,  however,  certain  sections  that 
are  not  adapted  to  the  growing  of  cherries.  In  sections  where 
the  atmosphere  is  very  dry,  as  on  high  plains,  cherries  cannot  be 
profitably  grown,  because  even  if  the  trees  make  good  growth 
they  do  not  bear  well.  A  point  that  must  be  considered  in 
selecting  a  location  for  a  cherry  orchard  is  the  availability  of 
labor  for  harvesting  the  crop,  which  must  be  done  in  a  compar- 
atively short  time. 


§  20        CHERRIES,  APRICOTS,  AND  QUINCES  11 

The  character  of  the  soil  must  also  be  considered  in  selecting 
the  location  for  a  cherry  orchard.  The  ideal  soil  for  the  sweet 
cherry  is  a  deep,  sandy  loam.  A  clay  subsoil  may  not  interfere 
with  the  growth  if  the  soil  is  well  drained  and  the  clay  is  not 
too  compact.  The  soil  should  contain  sufficient  organic  matter 
to  retain  moisture  well,  but  it  should  not  be  too  rich  in  nitrogen, 
as  this  will  tend  to  stimulate  a  rank  wood  growth,  which  leads 
to  exudation  of  sap  and  causes  the  tree  to  be  unfruitful  and 
short  lived.  The  sour  cherry  will  thrive  on  soil  adapted  to  the 
growth  of  the  sweet  cherry  and  may  also  be  grown  with  profit 
on  well-drained  clay  loam. 

10.  Site. — The  selection  of  a  proper  site  for  the  cherry 
orchard  is  very  important,  as  no  other  hardy  fruit  is  so  suscep- 
tible to  injury  by  frost  or  cold  rain  during  blooming  time. 
Especially  is  this  true  of  the  sweet  cherries. 

The  ideal  site  is  a  high  elevation  which  has  good  air  drainage 
as  w^ell  as  good  water  drainage.  Such  a  site  tends  not  only  to 
lessen  the  danger  of  injury  by  late  spring  frosts,  but  also  reduces 
the  damage  by  brown  rot.  If  the  grower  has  a  choice  of  equall>' 
desirable  land  sloping  in  different  directions,  a  northern  slope 
should  be  selected,  as  the  opening  of  buds  in  the  spring  is 
retarded  more  than  on  other  slopes.  The  proximity  of  large 
bodies  of  water  also  lessens  the  danger  of  late  frosts. 


SELECTION    OF    VARIETIES 

11.  In  selecting  the  varieties  of  cherries  to  be  grown  in  a 
commerical  orchard,  a  grower  should  select  from  the  varieties 
that  have  been  successfully  grown  in  that  section.  In  the 
Pacific  Coast  States,  sweet  cherries  are  grown  practically  exclu- 
sively, and  the  following  varieties  have  been  recommended  for 
growth  in  that  region:  Black  Tartarian,  Napoleon,  Windsor, 
Yellow  Spanish,  Rockport,  Elton,  Bing,  Lam.bert,  and  Cen- 
tennial ;  of  these  the  Black  Tartarian  and  the  Napoleon  varieties 
probably  stand  first  in  importance.  In  the  Sierra  Nevada 
Mountains  in  the  eastern  part  of  Oregon,  the  dukes  are  widely 
planted,  as  they  are  more  hardy  and  stand  the  winters  better 


12  CHERRIES,  APRICOTS,  AND  QUINCES        §  20 

than  the  varieties  just  mentioned.  In  the  Central  West,  sour 
cherries  are  planted  almost  entirely.  The  varieties  most  widely- 
grown  are  Dyehouse,  Early  Richmond,  Montmorency,  English 
Morello,  and  Wragg.  In  the  Eastern  States,  sour  cherries  are 
largely  grown,  although  some  sweet  cherries  are  also  grown. 
The  state  of  Michigan  leads  the  other  Eastern  States  in  pro- 
duction of  sweet  cherries,  and  here  about  1  acre  of  sweet  to 
10  acres  of  sour  cherries  is  grown.  The  sweet  cherry  most 
grown  in  Michigan  and  in  other  sections  of  the  East  is  the 
Windsor,  which  is  better  adapted  to  clay  loam  than  is  any  other 
variety  of  sweet  cherry.  The  Napoleon  and  Yellow  Spanish 
varieties,  as  well  as  the  Magnifique  and  Montreuil,  varieties  of 
the  dukes  group,  are  also  grown.  The  principal  sour  cherries 
grown  in  the  Eastern  States  are  Montmorency,  Early  Rich- 
mond, Ostheim,  English  Morello,  and  Wragg. 

X  ijOC'}^  ai 

■thiol 

CHERRY    NURSERY    STOCK 

12.  Propagation  of  Cherry  Trees. — The  usual  method 
of  propagating  cherries  is  by  budding.  Seedlings  1  year  old 
are  planted  and  are  budded  the  following  summer  as  soon  as  buds 
are  ripe  on  the  parent,  which  is  sometime  in  August  in  the 
Northeastern  States,  and  somewhat  earlier  in  sections  having 
a  warmer  climate.  Two  kinds  of  stock  are  used  for  propaga- 
ting cherries,  the  mazzard,  a  seedling  sweet  cherry,  and  the 
mahaleb,  a  seedling  sour  cherry.  Trees  grown  on  mahaleb 
stock  are  more  dwarf  in  habit  and  are  said  to  be  more  hardy 
in  the  West  than  are  trees  grown  on  mazzard  stock.  For  some 
years  the  Eastern  nurserymen  have  been  budding  both  sour  and 
sweet  cherries  on  the  mahaleb,  but  there  is  now  a  demand  for 
the  sweet  cherries  on  mazzard  roots  to  be  planted  on  light 
soils,  and  some  experiments  in  New  York  seem  to  indicate  that 
even  on  fairly  heavy  soils  the  mazzard  is  the  better  root  for 
sour  cherries,  but  even  in  that  locality  the  mazzard  stock 
sometimes  suffers  severely  during  hard  winters. 

13.  Nursery  Trees. — It  is  best  to  order  1-year-old  cherry 
triges  for  planting  as  trees  of  this  age  may  be  headed  as  low  as 


20        CHERRIES,  APRICOTS,  AND  QUINCES 


13 


desired.     They  will  also  have  a  greater  proportion  of  their 
roots  remaining  upon  them  than  will  trees  which  have  been 


Fig.  5 


allowed  to  grow  longer  in  the  nursery.  Another  advantage 
of  1 -year-old  trees  is  that  being  small  they  are  much  easier  to 
handle  and  less  expensive  to  ship.     In  preparing  the  trees  for 


14  CHERRIES,  APRICOTS,  AND  QUINCES        §  20 

planting  the  same  precautions  should  be  observed  as  in  the 
case  of  plums. 

A  No.  1  grade  2-year-old  sour  cherry  tree  of  the  Montmorency 
variety  is  shown  in  Fig.  5  (a) ;  it  measured  5  feet  6  inches  above 
the  bud  and  9  inches  below  the  bud,  and  calipered  |  inch.  A 
No.  1  grade  sweet  cherry  tree  of  the  Napoleon  variety  is  shown 
in  (6) ;  it  measured  6  feet  3  inches  above  the  bud  and  9  inches 
below  the  bud,  and  calipered  1 3^  inches. 


PLANTING    OF    CHERRIES 

14.  Methods  of  Planting. — The  methods  of  planting 
cherry  trees  are  the  same  as  those  already  outlined  for  other 
fruit  trees,  with  the  possible  exception  that  when  cherry  trees 
are  planted  in  the  cold  parts  of  the  Prairie  States  and  north  of 
the  41st  parallel,  it  is  deemed  to  be  good  practice  to  plant 
them  6  to  12  inches  deeper  than  they  stood  in  the  niu^sery  row, 
and  this  is  of  special  importance  on  the  high,  rolling  land  that 
is  the  most  suitable  for  cherry  orchards.  As  a  rule,  it  is  wise 
in  any  section  to  plant  cherry  trees  somewhat  deeper  than  they 
stood  in  the  nursery. 

15.  Time  of  Planting. — A  large  proportion  of  cherry 
trees  are  dug  in  the  fall,  and  since  a  great  many  plantings 
are  made  in  the  fall,  nurserymen,  to  rush  the  work,  strip  the 
foliage,  frequently  three  or  four  weeks  before  it  would  fall 
naturally;  this  tends  to  weaken  the  trees  and  increase  the  loss, 
which  is  usually  charged  to  autumn  planting.  In  the  judgment 
of  some  experienced  growers,  fall  planting,  made  just  as  soon 
as  the  leaves  drop  naturally,  is  preferable  to  spring  planting, 
as  trees  well  planted  in  the  fall  are  generally  in  better  condition 
than  trees  in  the  nursery  ceUar. 

The  advantages  of  fall  planting  are  that  a  better  callus  of  the 
injured  surface  of  the  root  is  secured  and  some  roots  develop 
before  winter.  The  soil  being  warmer  in  October  than  at  any 
other  time  of  the  year,  the  growth  of  roots  is  encouraged  more 
at  that  time  than  in  spring.  When  trees  are  spring  planted, 
the  growth  of  foliage  is  made  largely  at  the  expense  of  the  food 


§  20        CHERRIES,  APRICOTS,  AND  QUINCES  15 

stored  in  the  truiik,  and  it  is  some  time  before  the  roots  can 
develop  marked  activity.  In  fact,  it  is  frequently  June  before 
new  growth  can  be  seen  on  the  roots.  If  spring  planting  is 
practiced,  it  should  be  done  as  early  as  possible. 

16.  Distance  for  Planting. — Sour  cherries  are  set  as 
close  as  10  feet  or  12  feet  apart;  18  feet  by  18  feet  is  a  common 
distance.  The  sour  varieties  would  be  better  planted  20  feet 
by  20  feet,  and  sweet  cherries  should  be  planted  30  feet  apart 
each  way,  for  in  favorable  locations  the  sweet  cherry  will  make 
a  large  tree  40  to  50  feet  high. 


ORCHARD  OPERATIONS 

17.  Cultivation. — The  soil  for  cherries  is  prepared  in  the 
same  way  as  that  for  plums.  A  cultivated  crop,  such  as  com, 
potatoes,  beans,  etc.,  or  garden  truck,  is  frequently  grown 
between  the  trees  for  the  first  3  or  4  years,  if  Ihe  soil  is  sufficiently 
rich.  If  intercropping  is  not  practiced  and  the  land  is  entirely 
given  up  to  the  trees,  shallow  cultivation  is  maintained  until 
the  middle  of  July  or  thereabouts.  At  this  time  cultivation 
ceases  and  a  cover  crop  of  some  kind,  for  example,  Crimson 
clover,  oats  and  barley,  buckwheat  and  rape,  or  one  of  various 
other  crops  is  planted.  The  important  point  is  to  have  a  good 
mat  of  material  on  the  ground  to  hold  snow  and  afford  pro- 
tection to  the  roots.  In  addition,  these  crops  have  some  value 
as  fertilizers.  Many  successful  growers  contend  that  it  is 
absolutely  necessary  for  a  successful  cherry  orchard  that  it 
have  good  cultivation  during  its  early  life  and  that  the  trees 
be  developed  to  a  good  size  before  bearing.  A  little  more  care 
must  be  taken  in  growing  sweet  cherries  than  in  growing  sour 
cherries.  The  sour  cherry  will  stand  forcing,  but  the  sweet 
cherry  may  be  made  to  grow  too  rapidly,  in  which  case  most 
of  its  energies  will  be  devoted  to  the  production  of  wood  gro^vth 
and  little  to  the  production  of  fruit.  When  the  trees  come  into 
bearing  it  is  generally  advisable  to  maintain  good  cultivation 
in  the  case  of  the  sour  cherries,  but  in  some  cases  it  is  profitable 
to  sow  clover  in  the  sweet-cherry  orchard  and  let  it  remain  for 


IG  CHERRIES,  APRICOTS,  AND  QUINCES        §  20 

two  or  three  seasons,  especially  if  the  trees  are  making  much 
growth.  Each  grower  will  have  to  decide  for  himself  as  to 
the  best  method  to  pursue.  It  is  safe  to  say  that  on  sandy  land 
cultivation  should  be  maintained  for  both  sweet  and  sour 
cherries.  It  is  very  important  that  cultivation  be  started  as 
soon  as  possible  in  the  spring,  in  order  to  retain  as  much  mois- 
ture as  possible  in  the  soil. 

The  tillage  implements  are  those  usually  used  in  other 
orchards. 

18.  Priming. — Compared  with  most  other  trees,  the 
cherry  should  receive  little  pruning,  especially  after  the  first 
2  or  3  years.  During  the  first  year  just  sufficient  wood  should 
be  removed  to  give  the  tree  a  spreading  habit.  The  head 
should  be  started  within  18  inches  of  the  ground  and  according 
to  some  of  the  most  successful  growers  should  consist  of  from 
three  to  five  main  branches  with  a  leader.  Low-headed  trees 
are  secured  by  allowing  siifficient  distance  between  the  trees 
and  by  heading  in  from  the  first  year.  It  may  be  necessary  to 
cut  back  the  growth  one-half  each  year  until  the  tree  comes 
into  bearing.  If  this  is  done  there  must  also  be  judicious 
thinning  of  the  shoots,  which  are  induced  to  grow  because  of 
this  method  of  cutting  back.  After  the  trees  reach  bearing 
age  little  other  pruning  than  to  take  out  interfering  or  diseased 
wood  is  needed. 

19.  Fertilizing. — The  question  of  the  desirability  of 
fertilizing  cherry  orchards  depends  largely  on  local  conditions. 
In  general,  however,  where  Crimson  clover  or  Red  clover  can 
be  grown  as  a  catch  crop  and  turned  under  in  the  spring,  there 
will  be  little  need  to  apply  nitrogenous  fertilizers.  It  is  stated 
by  some  growers  that  the  application  of  phosphate  fertilizers, 
especially  in  the  form  of  acid  phosphate,  tends  to  aid  the  trees 
in  maturing  their  wood.  Some  growers  recommend  the  appli- 
cation of  3  pounds  of  muriate  of  potash  and  15  pounds  of  acid 
phosphate  per  tree,  and  in  some  cases  the  application  of  from  100 
to  250  pounds  of  muriate  of  potash  and  from  300  to  500  pounds 
of  acid  phosphate  per  acre  is  recommended.  From  300  to  400 
pounds  of  muriate  of  potash  and  an  equal  quantity  of  ground 


§  20        CHERRIES,  APRICOTS,  AND  QUINCES  17 

bone  have  been  applied  per  acre  with  good  results.  Wood 
ashes,  when  obtainable,  may  be  applied  at  the  rate  of  from  50  to 
100  bushels  per  acre  in  place  of  the  muriate  of  potash.  In  each 
case  the  nitrogen  is  to  be  secured  by  plowing  under  legtuninous 
crops.  Some  growers  use  a  2-8-10  complete  fertilizer  at  the 
rate  of  400  to  800  pounds  per  acre. 

20.  Spraying. — The  first  spray  shoiild  be  applied  to 
cherries  before  the  buds  break  and  should  consist  of  lime- 
sulphur  of  a  specific  gravity  of  1.03,  or  32°  Baiime  diluted 
1  to  8.  The  second  spray  should  be  applied  just  before  the 
fruit  buds  open  and  should  consist  of  lime-sulphur  of  a  specific 
gravity  of  1.007,  or  32°  Baume  diluted  1  to  40,  and  containing 
1|  to  2  pounds  of  arsenate  of  lead  to  50  gallons  of  liquid.  This 
spray  may  be  repeated  as  soon  as  the  fruit  sets  and  may  be 
followed  by  two  or  three  subsequent  sprayings  if  necessary. 
Some  growers  use  Bordeaux  mixture  in  place  of  lime-sulphur 
for  all  sprays  except  the  first.  Self -boiled  lime-sulphur  is  some- 
times used  as  a  ftingicide  spray  after  the  fruit  forms. 

21.  Renovation  of  Old  Ciierry  Orciiards. — The  cherry, 
especially  in  the  Eastern  States,  grows  to  a  good  size  and  lives 
to  a  great  age,  some  trees  being  over  a  hundred  years  old,  but 
there  are  few  old  cherry  orchards.  There  has  been  no  great 
cherry  business,  and  it  is  difficult  to  state  how  long  an  orchard 
will  continue  to  be  profitable.  One  authority  states  that 
probably  30  years  is  the  limit  of  the  most  profitable  age,  for 
after  that  time  the  trees  are  so  large  that  the  expense  of  pick- 
ing the  fruit  and  taking  care  of  the  trees  becomes  too  great. 
Before  renovating  an  old  orchard,  an  individual  should  consider 
these  factors  and  determine  whether  it  would  not  be  better  to 
plant  a  new  orchard.  Cherry  trees  may  be  expected  to  bear  at 
5  years  of  age  and  at  10  years  to  be  making  handsome  returns; 
and  generally  it  will  take  2  or  3  years  to  get  an.  old  orchard 
into  shape  even  if  it  can  be  accomplished  at  all. 


18  CHERRIES,  APRICOTS,  AND  QUINCES        §  20 


HANDLING  OF  THE  CHERRY  CROP 

22.  Harvesting." — ^The  labor  of  picking  has  been  a  serious 
problem  in  cherry  growing,  as  the  fruit  matures  very  rapidly 
and  must  be  quickly  removed  or  it  will  spoil.  For  this  reason, 
a  grower  should  not  plant  a  large  cherry  orchard  unless  he  is 
sure  he  can  secure  pickers  at  the  proper  time.  The  fruit  should 
be  harvested  in  two  or  three  pickings,  as  it  does  not  ripen  uni- 
formly. The  pickers  should  use  ladders  and  should  not  be 
allowed  to  climb  around  in  the  trees,  as  this  is  liable  to  injure 
the  bark  and  also  to  break  the  branches.  Pickers  are  usually 
paid  from  f  to  1  cent  per  pound,  although  some  growers  prefer 
to  hire  by  the  day,  because  of  the  greater  care  exercised  by  the 
pickers.  Fruit  for  shipping  should  be  picked  with  the  stems 
on,  but  at  the  same  time  care  must  be  taken  not  to  remove 
the  fruit  spur  to  which  the  stem  is  attached.  When  the  fruit 
is  picked  for  a  short  haul  to  a  cannery,  it  is  allowed  to  become 
more  mature  than  when  it  is  to  be  shipped.  It  is  also  picked 
without  the  stems,  which  is  much  easier  for  the  picker  and  less 
injurious  to  the  tree. 

One  of  the  most  successful  growers  in  Michigan  harvests  all 
of  his  cherries  by  spreading  sheets  under  the  trees  and  per- 
mitting the  pickers  to  clip  the  fruit  off  with  scissors  and  allow 
it  to  fall  on  the  sheet,  leaving  about  |  inch  of  the  stem  on  the 
cherry.  Fruit  picked  in  this  way  sells  at  a  higher  price  than  that 
which  has  long  stems  attached.  Cherries  should  be  picked 
while  dry.  As  soon  as  the  fruit  is  picked  it  should  be  placed 
in  the  shade  or  removed  to  the  packing  house. 

23.  Grading  and  Packing. — The  fruit  is  poured  from  the 
picking  baskets  onto  the  packing  table.  If  it  can  be  allowed 
to  cool  before  it  is  graded  it  can  be  handled  much  better.  Gra- 
ding and  packing  usually  constitute  one  operation.  The  fruit 
should  not  be  shipped  in  large  bulk,  as  for  example  in  half- 
bushel  packages,  as  the  fruit  is  easily  crushed.  Baskets  holding 
not  more  than  8  or  10  pounds  are  used.  Some  growers  pack 
cherries  in  berry  boxes  and  use  the  16-box  berry  crate  as  a 
carrier.     Very  fancy  fruit  packed  in  1-  or  2-pound  packages 


§  20        CHERRIES,  APRICOTS,  AND  QUINCES  19 

and  shipped  in  carriers  will  often  bring  a  much  higher  price 
than  if  put  up  in  larger  packages. 

When  cherries  are  to  be  shipped  in  small  boxes,  the  tops  of 
the  boxes  are  nailed  on  and  the  bottoms  left  off,  and  the  box  is 
packed  from  the  bottom.  Cherries  are  placed  in  rows  on  the 
inside  of  the  top,  with  the  stems  all  turned  into  the  box.  After 
the  inside  is  covered,  forming  the  facing,  the  box  is  filled  and  the 
bottom  nailed  on  and  the  box  turned  and  marked  on  the  faced 
side.  Lace-edged  paper  is  often  placed  in  the  box  before  the 
fruit  is  put  in.  If  baskets  are  used  for  packing,  the  fruit  is 
put  in  and  faced  on  top.  For  fancy  fruit,  facing  pays.  If  the 
fruit  is  to  be  sent  to  the  canner  it  is  not  graded  so  closely  and. 
is  usually  shipped  in  8-pound  baskets  without  facing. 

24,  Storing. — Cherries  are  regarded  by  cold-storage  men 
as  extremely  perishable.  The  way  in  which  the  fruit  is  handled 
before  it  is  placed  in  storage  has  much  to  do  with  its  keeping. 
Cherries  that  have  been  properly  picked  and  handled  and 
covered  with  a  layer  of  cotton  batting  have  been  kept  in  good 
condition  for  a  month  at  a  temperature  of  30  degrees,  which 
is  the  temperature  found  best  for  storing  cherries. 

Cherries  as  well  as  plums  have  been  held  in  storage  frozen 
at  a  temperature  of  from  5  to  12  degrees  for  several  months. 
They  must,  however,  be  used  immediately  on  being  taken  out 
of  storage.  Little  has  been  done  thus  far  in  holding  cherries 
in  storage  for  commercial  purposes. 

25.  Marketing. — The  problem  of  marketing  is  similar  to 
that  of  all  other  perishable  fruits,  but  by  cooperation  a  number 
of  small  growers  can  dispose  of  their  crops  to  as  good  advantage 
as  the  large  grower  can.  Generally  speaking,  Eastern-grown 
fruit  will  not  stand  up  quite  as  well  as  that  grown  in  California ; 
there  is,  therefore,  more  risk  in  handling.  California  cherries 
can  be  placed  on  Eastern  markets  in  April  when  Eastern  trees 
are  in  bloom  and  remain  in  the  market  until  July.  The  Eastern 
grower  is  hardly  warranted  in  going  into  the  business  unless 
he  has  a  near-by  market  such  as  a  canning  factory  that  will 
take  large  quantities  of  fruit  at  very  short  notice.  Such  a 
factory  constitutes  one  of  the  best  markets  for  a  large  grower. 


20  CHERRIES,  APRICOTS,  AND  QUINCES        §  20 

If  the  price  is  determined  before  the  fruit  is  consigned  to  the 
market  the  grower  is  not  subject  to  the  risk  that  is  taken  when 
fruit  is  consigned  on  commission,  as  the  market  may  be  glutted 
when  the  fruit  arrives.  There  is  a  large  and  insistent  demand 
on  the  part  of  canners  for  white  cherries,  that  is,  the  sweet, 
light-colored  cherries,  and  for  red  cherries,  especially  the 
Montmorency.  The  price  ruling  during  the  last  few  years 
has  been  about  5  cents  per  pound. 


CHERRY  PESTS  AND  INJURIES 


INSECTS 

26.  The  black  cherry  aphis  is  an  insect  that  so  far  as 
known  attacks  only  the  cherry  and  does  serious  injury  only  to 
the  sweet  chferry.  Beth  the  winged  and  the  wingless  forms  of 
this  aphis  are  shining  black.  The  insects  assemble  in  large 
numbers  on  the  young  shoots  or  limbs  near  the  base,  before 
spreading  to  the  rest  of  the  tree.  If  careful  watch  is  kept  the 
insects  may  easily  be  destroyed  while  so  clustered  and  thus  may 
be  prevented  from  spreading  to  other  parts  of  the  tree.  The 
presence  of  the  insects  is  indicated  by  a  large  amount  of  honey 
dew  on  the  foliage.  The  infested  leaves  soon  begin  to  curl  and 
form  a  protection  for  the  insects.  The  black  cherry  aphis 
should  be  controlled  by  the  use  of  contact  insecticide  sprays, 
which  should  be  applied  before  the  leaves  curl. 

27.  The  San  Jose  scale  and  other  scale  insects  that  have 
been  discussed  in  connection  with  the  growing  of  other  fruits 
sometimes  attack  cherries.  The  remedy  is  the  same  as  already 
given  for  these  insects.  The  sour  cherry  does  not  stiff er  as 
severely  from  the  attack  of  San  Jose  scale  as  does  the  sweet 
cherry. 

28.  The  plum  curculio  sometimes  injures  cherries.  The 
remedy  is  to  spray  with  arsenate  of  lead  as  described  for  plums. 

29.  The  cherry  fruit  fly  is  an  insect  native  to  America. 
The  adult  insect  is  a  fly  slightly  smaller  than  a  house  fly;  it  is 


§  20        CHERRIES,  APRICOTS,  AND  QUINCES  21 

black  in  color  and  has  a  yellowish  head  and  legs  and  three  or 
four  white  bands  across  the  abdomen.  This  insect  deposits  eggs 
just  under  the  skin  of  the  cherry.  The  eggs  hatch  in  a  few  days 
into  little  maggots,  similar  in  appearance  to  the  apple  maggot ; 
these  burrow  through  the  flesh  of  the  cherry,  leaving  a  rotting 
cavity.  When  full  grown  the  maggots  leave  the  cherry  and 
pupate  just  below  the  surface  of  the  ground,  under  rubbish, 
or  in  the  bottom  of  baskets 
in  which  the  fruit  is  packed. 
Little  has  been  done  toward 
controlling  this  insect.  A 
similar  fly  has  recently 
been  controlled  in  South 
Africa  by  spraying  the  foli- 
age with  arsenate-of-lead 
solution  sweetened  with 
brown  sugar.  The  sugars,' 
attracts  the  flies,  which  ase 

-]3^..  Fig.  6 

killed  by  the  poison.     This 

remedy  is  worthy  of  trial  if  the  cherry  fruit  fly  should  become 
a  very  serious  pest.  Early  spring  flowing  will  no  doubt  bury 
many  of  the  pupas  and  prevent  the  flies  from  emerging.  All 
fruit  that  falls  or  that  remains  on  the  trees  after  harvest 
should  be  destroyed.    Fig.  6  represents  the  cherry  fruit  fly. 


FUNGOUS    AND    CLIMATIC    INJURIES 

30.  The  fungous  disease  known  as  black  knot  that  causes 
the  black,  irregular  knotty  growth  on  plum  trees  also  attacks 
cherry  trees.  The  remedy  is  to  cut  out  and  bum  the  affected 
branches  as  soon  as  they  are  discovered.  Fig.  7  shows  cherry 
branches  affected  with  black  knot. 

31.  Brown  rot  is  the  most  serious  fungous  disease  with 
which  cherry  growers  have  to  contend,  and  some  varieties  of 
sweet  cherries  are  especially  subject  to  its  attack.  Fruit  that 
cracks  is  especially  liable  to  be  attacked.  Hot,  moist  atmos- 
pheric   conditions,  when    occurring  at  the  time  the  fruit  is 


CHERRIES,  APRICOTS,  AND  QUINCES        §  20 


ripening,  are  favorable  to  the  spread  of  this  disease.  Bordeaux 
mixture  has  been  used  with  partial  success  to  control  the 
fungus,  but  the  foliage  of  the  sweet  cherry  is  very  susceptible 
to  injury  by  Bordeaux.  Some  growers  believe  that  self-boiled 
lime-sulphur  will  prove  to  be  an  excellent  remedy  for  the 
disease.     Injury  from  this  fungus  may  be  lessened  by  picking 


2 

^^^ 

j^ 

/j^^m^^M^^- 

A 

5 

^^^^^^^^^                                          "' 

^ 
''^ 

W:=^&^'_^wM: 

^^~2^^^"^^^^^^^^^^ 

^ 

K^f^ 

"^ 

/k  ^                    ^^-^^'^^^^sL^^r-^^^^^^k 

Fig.  7 

the  fruit  before  it  is  fully  ripe  and  when  it  is  perfectly  dry. 
Fig.  8  shows  Montmorency  cherries  affected  with  brown  rot. 

32.  Powdery  mildew  sometimes  attacks  the  fruit  and 
leaves  of  the  sour  cherry.  The  description  and  remedy  for  this 
fungus  has  been  given  in  a  previous  Section. 

33.  The  shot-liole  fuiigus  described  in  another  Section 
also  affects  cherries.  The  remedy  is  the  same  as  in  the  case  of 
plums. 


§  20        CHERRIES,  APRICOTS,  AND  QUINCES 


23 


34.  An  injury  known  as  sun  scald  is  frequently  seen  on 
cherry  trees,  and  especially  on  sweet  cherry  trees.  This  injury 
is  prevalent  in  the  West  and  South  and  as  far  north  as  Massa- 
chusetts. It  occurs  usually  in  the  late  winter  or  the  early 
spring  on  the  south  or  the  west  side  of  the  trunk  or  of  the 
larger  branches.     It  is  caused  by  alternate  freezing  and  thawing, 


Fig.  8 

causing  contraction  and  expansion,  which  bursts  the  bark  on 
the  side  of  the  tree  toward  the  sun.  The  injury  is  most  prev- 
alent on  trees  that  are  growing  rapidly.  If  trees  are  headed 
low  so  that  the  trunks  are  shaded  there  is  less  danger  of  this 
injury  occurring.  In  some  of  the  Western  States  the  trunks 
are  shaded  with  netting,  matting,  or  a  board  to  prevent  this 
injury. 


24  CHERRIES,  APRICOTS,  AND  QUINCES        §  20 


APRICOTS 

35.  The  apricot  tree  is  a  vigorous  grower  and  produces 
fruit  both  on  the  spurs  and  on  the  last  season's  twigs.  The 
fruit  ripens  in  advance  of  the  peach  and  plum  and  has  the 
general  appearance  of  the  peach,  but  its  pit,  which  is  broad, 
smooth,  and  somewhat  fiat,  is  more  like  that  of  the  plum. 
The  earliness  of  the  blooming  period  of  the  apricot  has  been 
the  greatest  drawback  to  its  being  planted  in  almost  all  sections 
where  the  peach  thrives.  In  many  of  the  sections  where  the 
apricot  has  been  tried,  the  fruit  is  nearly  always  killed  by  late 
spring  frosts.  In  many  cases  the  failure  of  the  plants  to  thrive 
and  to  produce  fruit  has  been  due  to  the  planting  of  wrong 
varieties.  With  a  better  knowledge  of  frost  conditions  and  of 
methods  of  protection  from  frosts,  the  area  over  which  apricots 
can  be  grown  has  recently  increased  very  rapidly. 

The  demand  for  apricots  is  so  great  that  they  will  always 
bring  good  prices. 

The  same  general  statements  that  have  been  made  in  regard 
to  the  selection  of  a  location  for  a  peach  orchard  are  applicable 
to  the  selection  of  a  location  for  an  apricot  orchard.  It  should 
be  remembered,  however,  that  apricots  bloom  earlier  in  the 
spring  than  do  peaches  and,  therefore,  cannot  be  grown  with  as 
much  safety  in  localities  that  are  subject  to  late  spring  frosts 
as  can  peaches. 

36.  Varieties  of  Apricots. — Brief  descriptions  of  some  of 
the  best  commercial  varieties  of  apricots  are  as  follows : 

The  Moorpark  is  one  of  the  latest-ripening  varieties.  The 
fruit  is  large  and  uniform  in  size,  nearly  round  in  shape,  and  in 
color  is  orange  with  a  deep  orange-colored  cheek.  It  is  a  free- 
stone and  the  flesh  is  bright  yellowish  orange  in  color,  is  firm  and 
juicy,  has  a  rich,  high  flavor,  and  the  quality  is  good. 

The  Royal  is  a  leading  variety  for  canning  and  drying. 
The  fruit  is  large,  roundish  in  shape,  the  color  is  a  dull  yellow 


§  20        CHERRIES,  APRICOTS,  AND  QUINCES  25 

with  an  orange  cheek  and  a  faint  blush,  and  is  a  freestone. 
The  flesh  is  Hght  orange  in  color,  is  firm  and  juicy,  has  a  vinous 
flavor,  and  is  classed  as  good  in  quality. 

The  Peach  variety  is  one  of  the  best.  It  ripens  in  mid- 
season  and  dries  to  a  deep  golden-yellow  color.  The  fruit  is 
very  large,  has  flattened  sides,  and  a  well-marked  suture,  and 
is  of  an  orange  color.  The  flesh  is  orange  yellow  in  color,  is 
juicy,  rich,  and  highly  flavored. 

The  Tilton  variety  resembles  the  Peach  variety  in  respect  to 
size,  shape,  and  time  of  ripening,  but  it  is  more  deeply  colored. 
It  dries  well  and  is  a  good  canner  and  shipper. 

The  fruit  of  the  Newcastle  variety  is  of  mediimi  size  and  is 
valuable  for  supplying  the  early  market. 

The  fruit  of  the  BlerLheim  variety  is  above  mediimi  in  size 
and  is  of  an  oval  shape  and  an  orange  color.  The  flesh  is  deep 
yellow  in  color,  juicy,  and  has  a  rich  flavor.  This  variety  is  in 
great  demand  for  canning  and  drying. 

37.  Selection  of  Nursery  Stock. — The  apricot  may  be 
grown  on  either  peach,  apricot,  almond,  or  plum  stock.  The 
peach  seedling  is  used  most  as  stock  on  which  to  graft  apricot 
scions.  The  plimi  should  be  used  as  stock  for  heavy  soils,  and 
the  peach  or  the  bitter  almond  should  be  used  as  stock  for 
light  soils.  The  almond  root  should  not  be  used  as  stock  in 
sections  troubled  by  gophers,  as  these  animals  are  very  fond  of 
it  and  often  destroy  large  orchards  of  trees  grown  on  this  root. 

The  pits  from  which  the  stock  is  to  be  grown  are  usually 
obtained  at  canneries  and  kept  from  drying  out  until  the  follow- 
ing spring,  when  they  are  planted  in  rows  3|  feet  apart,  and  the 
pits  3  inches  apart  in  the  row  and  are  covered  3  inches  deep. 
The  planting  can  also  be  done  in  the  fall.  The  pits  may  be 
kept  from  becoming  dry  by  placing  a  2-inch  layer  of  pits  in 
a  bottomless  box  placed  on  the  ground  and  on  top  of  the  pits 
a  2-inch  layer  of  sand.  This  operation  is  repeated  until  all  the 
pits  are  covered. 

A  good  nursery  tree  should  be  1  year  old  and  from  4  to  5  feet 
high.  Branches  or  well-developed  buds  should  be  well  dis- 
tributed along  the  trunk  to  within  10  inches  of    the    roots. 


20  CHERRIES,  APRICOTS,  AND  QUINCES        §  20 

The  trunk,  or  stem,  must  be  stocky,  the  roots  weU  developed, 
and  have  numerous  small  branching  rootlets.  A  tree  with 
only  a  few  large  roots  will  start  growth  very  slowly. 

Nursery  stock  should  be  purchased  from  well-known  nursery 
firms,  and  if  possible  from  a  nursery  located  in  the  district  in 
which  the  orchard  is  to  be  grown. 

38.  Planting  of  Apricot  Trees. — As  soon  as  the  trees 
are  received  from  the  nursery  they  should  be  heeled-in  until 
they  are  to  be  planted.  Apricots  are  planted  from  20  to  30  feet 
apart.  The  suggestions  in  regard  to  the  preparations  of  the 
soil  for  peaches  and  to  the  planting  of  peaches  are  applicable 
to  apricots. 

39.  Priming  of  Apricot  Trees. — The  time  that  elapses 
between  the  setting  of  trees  and  the  time  that  they  begin 
bearing  is  the  period  of  formation  of  the  trees  and  will  cover 
the  first  3  years  of  their  existence  in  the  orchard.  The  first 
year  the  tree  should  be  headed  back  to  within  15  inches  of  the 
ground,  and  as  the  apricot  is  a  very  rapid  grower  there  will  be 
many  more  shoots  than  are  required.  As  soon  as  the  twigs 
reach  a  length  of  6  inches  all  on  the  stem,  from  the  groimd  up 
to  a  point  8  inches  above  the  surface,  shoiild  be  removed,  above 
this  point  only  five  branches  should  be  left  and  these  well  placed 
aroimd  the  stem.  After  the  trees  have  become  dormant,  pre- 
ferably along  toward  spring,  the  remaining  branches  should  be 
cut  back  from  one-half  to  two-thirds  of  their  growth  and  the 
side  shoots  on  them  thiimed  to  from  three  to  five  shoots  on 
each  branch  and  each  shoot  should  be  cut  back  to  spurs  of 
three  buds.  This  pruning  leaves  stubs  of  about  1|  feet  in 
length  as  a  foundation  on  which  to  build  the  tree.  The  pruning 
for  the  next  2  years  should  be  such  as  to  make  the  tree  as  stocky 
as  possible.  To  accompHsh  this  the  pruning  the  second  and 
the  third  year  should  be  almost  as  severe  as  that  given  the 
first  year.  The  sprouts  on  the  trunk  and  all  drooping  branches 
should  be  removed  to  allow  Hght  and  air  to  get  into  the  head 
of  the  tree,  otherwise  the  twigs  and  spurs  in  the  center  will  be 
smothered  out.  All  main  branches  should  be  cut  back  about 
one-half. 


§  20        CHERRIES,  APRICOTS,  AND  QUINCES  27 

From  the  fourth  year  good  crops  of  fruit  shoiild  be  expected, 
and  as  the  habit  of  the  tree  is  gradually  to  extend  the  bearing 
wood  farther  and  farther  away  from  the  trunk  and  the  spurs 
near  the  body  to  break  off  or  die,  a  rather  vigorous  heading  back 
must  be  practiced.  Heading  back  favors  new  growth  on  the 
trunk  and  on  the  large  branches  near  the  body,  thus  keeping 
the  fruiting  surface  more  evenly  distributed.  The  extent  of 
the  pruning  depends  on  the  growth  of  the  trees.  A  vigorous 
growth  may  be  cut  back  one-half  and  a  light  growth  one-third, 
but  the  branches  should  be  kept  thinned  and  cut  back  so  that 
the  sunshine  can  get  to  the  center  of  the  head  to  ripen  and 
color  the  fruit. 

40.  Renovating  Apricot  Orchards. — The  first  step  in 
renovating  an  old  orchard  is  to  give  the  land  a  thorough  plow- 
ing, preferably  during  the  faU.  The  orchard  should  then 
receive  a  thorough  pruning.  All  suckers  from  around  the  base 
of  the  trees  and  all  broken  and  diseased  branches  should  be 
removed  and  the  head  cut  back  very  severely.  If  the  orchard 
has  not  been  pruned  for  some  years,  at  least  one-half  the  length 
of  aU  branches  should  be  removed.  The  orchard  should  then 
be  sprayed  thoroughly  with  lime-sulphur,  1  gallon  of  stock 
solution  of  30°  Baimie  test  to  7  gallons  of  water,  making  a 
spray  of  a  specific  gravity  of  about  1.03. 

41.  Fertilizing. — The  most  common  fertilizers  in  use  for 
apricot  orchards  are  dried  blood,  bone  meal,  nitrate  of  soda, 
muriate  of  potash,  and  superphosphate. 

If  the  leaves  of  the  trees  are  of  light  color  and  the  growth 
of  the  trees  is  poor,  the  application  of  from  150  to  200  pounds 
of  nitrate  of  soda  per  acre  sown  broadcast  and  cultivated  luider 
will  have  a  beneficial  effect.  If  the  fruit  is  not  up  to  standard 
as  to  flavor  and  texture,  an  application  of  from  400  to  500  pounds 
per  acre  of  a  mixture  consisting  of  1  part  of  acid  phosphate,  or 
superphosphate,  and  2|  parts  of  muriate  of  potash  will  be 
beneficial. 

If  a  complete  fertilizer  is  desired  about  500  pounds  per  acre 
of  the  following  mixture  can  be  used:     Nitrate  of  soda,  150 


28  CHERRIES,  APRICOTS,  AND  QUINCES        §  20 

pounds;  muriate  of  potash,  250  pounds;  acid  phosphate,  or 
superphosphate,  100  pounds. 

A  chemical  fertilizer  should  be  applied  during  the  spring. 
Cover  crops  or  green  maniire  are  valuable  in  improving  the 
fertility  of  orchard  soils. 

42.  Apricot  Pests  and  Injuries. — The  apricot  tree  is 
one  of  the  healthiest  of  fruit  trees.  There  are  but  few  insect 
pests  and  fungous  diseases  that  seriously  injure  the  tree  or 
its  fruit,  but  the  tree  is  very  susceptible  to  injury  from  frost. 
In  fact,  it  is  climatic  conditions  more  than  anything  else  that 
curtails  the  production  of  apricots.  The  principal  insect 
enemies  of  the  apricot  are  the  plum  curculio,  the  peach  borer, 
and  the  San  Jose  scale.  The  worst  disease  that  affects  the 
apricot  is  the  shot-hole  fungus,  which  causes  considerable 
damage  by  perforating  the  leaves  with  small  holes  similar  to 
shot  holes  and  by  causing  numerous  small  scars  on  the  fruit 
that  materially  reduce  its  value.  These  pests  and  injuries 
are  combated  by  the  same  methods  that  have  been  recom- 
mended elsewhere. 

43.  Harvesting  of  Apricots. — The  stage  of  maturity  at 
which  apricots  should  be  picked  depends  on  whether  the  fruit 
is  to  be  shipped,  canned,  or  dried.  For  shipping  or  for  canning 
purposes,  the  fruit  should  be  well  colored  and  ripe,  but  only  ripe 
enough  to  be  firm;  that  is,  it  should  not  be  ripe  enough  to  be 
in  the  least  soft.  Fruit  that  has  begun  to  soften  will  not  stand 
shipping  and  should  be  dried. 

An  orchardist  should  have  a  good  supply  of  picking  buckets 
of  the  12-quart,  wide-mouth  type,  and  field  boxes,  which  should 
be  of  uniform  size  and  hold  about  1  bushel.  Good  step  ladders 
are  a  necessary  part  of  a  picking  equipment.  All  fruit  that 
is  ripe  enough  to  ship  should  be  gathered  at  one  picking. 
One  or  two  apricots  should  be  picked  at  a  time  and  laid,  not 
dropped,  into  the  receptacle.  A  number  of  apricots  should 
not  be  held  in  the  hand  at  one  time,  as  they  are  very  apt  to 
be  squeezed  and  bruised.  All  the  lower  fmit  should  be  picked 
and  placed  in  the  boxes  and  the  fruit  in  the  top  of  the  tree 
picked  from  the  step  ladders  and  placed  in  the  buckets.     The 


§  20        CHERRIES,  APRICOTS,  AND  QUINCES  29 

boxes  or  buckets  should  not  be  heaped,  as  there  would  be  too 
much  weight  on  the  fruit  in  the  bottom  of  the  box  or  bucket. 
The  fruit  should  not  be  emptied  out  of  the  boxes  or  buckets, 
but  taken  directly  to  the  packing  house  and  picked  out.  Every 
time  the  fruit  is  handled  its  shipping  quality  is  impaired.  All 
the  fruit  should  not  be  picked  at  one  picking,  because  it  does 
not  all  ripen  at  the  same  time.  The  trees  should  be  gone  over 
several  times  before  all  the  crop  is  removed. 

44.  Grading  and  Packing  of  Apricots. — ^Part  of  the 
grading  can  be  done  as  the  fruit  is  being  picked  by  leaving  all 
deformed  or  diseased  specimens  in  the  orchard.  The  final 
grading  is  done  by  the  packers.  All  soft,  broken-skiimed, 
undersized,  and  otherwise  blemished  fruit  is  culled  out  by  the 
packers  as  the  fruit  is  sorted  according  to  size  and  packed. 

Apricots  are  packed  in  carriers  containing  four  baskets  8  in. 
X8  in.  X4  in.  in  size.  Paper  is  used  to  line  the  baskets  and  to 
place  between  each  layer  of  fruit.  The  style  of  pack  that  is 
used  depends  on  the  size  of  the  fruit.  When  it  is  possible,  some 
form  of  the  diagonal  pack,  as  described  for  apples,  is  used.  The 
diagonal  pack  allows  fruit  to  be  so  distributed  that  each  fruit 
bears  a  part  of  the  pressure  and  weight  of  other  fruits  in  the 
pack.  Also,  the  fruit  in  diagonal  packs  sirffers  less  from  ship- 
ping than  it  does  in  other  forms  of  packs,  especially  the  straight 
pack.  However,  small  fruits  are  usually  placed  in  straight 
packs  because  it  is  easier  to  bring  the  fruit  to  the  top  of  the 
basket  by  using  the  straight  pack  than  by  using  the  other 
forms  of  packs. 

45.  Marketing  of  Apricots. — The  apricot  is  one  of  the 
most  perishable  of  tree  fruits,  the  season  for  it  in  the  fresh 
state  ending  almost  with  the  last  picking.  As  a  result,  the 
larger  number  of  apricot  consumers  are  more  familiar  with  the 
canned  or  dried  product  than  they  are  with  the  fresh.  Shippers 
realize  that  the  only  limit  to  the  consumption  of  the  fresh  fruit 
is  its  keeping  qualities,  and  that  anything  that  will  lengthen 
its  season  will  also  increase  the  profits.  At  present  careful 
attention  is  being  given  to  precooling  and  to  shipping  the 
fruit  in  refrigerator  cars.     It  has  been  found  that  by  cooling  the 


30  CHERRIES,  APRICOTS,  AND  QUINCES        §  20 

fruit  before  loading  and  then  carefully  icing  the  cars,  apricots 
can  be  put  on  all  the  large  markets  in  America  in  carload  lots 
and  then  distributed  from  there  to  the  near-by  small  towns. 
If  the  shipper  has  access  to  a  good  cold-storage  plant  at  the 
receiving  station,  the  shipment  can  be  unloaded  right  into  the 
storage  room.  This  will  give  him  a  chance  to  hold  his  fruit 
for  a  better  market. 

Some  of  the  most  difficult  problems  that  are  found  in  the 
marketing  of  the  apricot  is  to  get  the  grower  educated  to  pick 
and  to  pack  his  crop  properly.  A  poor  shipment  is  nearly 
always  due  to  the  fruit  being  roughly  handled,  to  having  stood 
in  the  sun  after  it  was  removed  from  the  trees,  to  having  been 
packed  in  a  dirty  packing  house,  or  to  poor  packing. 

46.  Drying  of  Apricots.— At  the  present  time  the  bulk 
of  apricot  drying  is  done  in  the  sun  on  a  small  plot  of  ground 
set  aside  for  the  purpose.  When  the  drying  season  approaches, 
the  drying  yard  is  cleaned  up  and  the  trash  removed.  The  fruit 
is  allowed  to  get  riper  than  that  used  for  shipping.  In  many 
orchards  the  fruit  is  shaken  off  of  the  trees.  However,  it  is  a 
much  better  plan  to  pick  the  fruit.  The  fruit  is  taken  to  a 
shed  where  it  is  cut,  never  torn,  in  half  and  the  pit  shaken  out. 
The  halves  are  spread,  skin  side  down,  on  a  tray  and  subjected 
to  the  fimies  of  burning  sulphur,  from  |  an  hour  to  2  hours, 
depending  on  the  condition  of  the  fruit.  This  is  done  in  order 
to  make  the  fruit  dry  to  a  light  amber  color.  The  length  of 
time  in  the  sulphur  box  required  to  give  this  color  can  be 
learned  only  by  experience.  The  trays  containing  the  fruit 
are  then  placed  in  the  sunshine  for  from  3  to  6  days,  the  exact 
time  necessary  to  dry  the  fruit  completely  varying  with  the 
climatic  conditions  and  also  with  the  condition  of  the  fruit. 
A  few  apricot  growers  dry  their  fruit  in  evaporators.  About 
6  pounds  of  green  fruit  will  make  1  pound  of  dried  fruit. 


20        CHERRIES,  APRICOTS,  AND  QUINCES  31 


QUINCES 


INTRODUCTION 

47.  The  quince  is  grown  commercially  less  extensively  than 
any  of  the  other  tree  or  bush  fruits,  and  although  a  compara- 
■  tively  limited  quantity  of  this  fruit  is  offered  for  sale,  experience 
proves  that  when  a  grove  is  rightly  taken  care  of  it  can  be  made 
very  profitable.  One  of  the  best  examples  of  the  truth  of  this 
statement  is  the  history  of  a  neglected  quince  grove  of  |  acre  in 
New  York  State.  The  trees  were  about  30  years  old  and  had 
been  practically  abandoned.  No  fruit  had  been  secured  for 
4  or  5  years,  but  it  was  thought  by  the  owner  that  the  trees  were 
worthy  of  renovation.  Accordingly  he  pruned  out  the  dead 
wood,  cultivated  the  land,  and  sprayed  the  trees.  The  first  year 
after  the  renovation  no  fruit  was  grown,  but  the  succeeding  years 
showed  good  results,  the  returns  for  the  next  6  years  being 
as  follows:  $112.50,  $119,  $150,  $138.20,  $138.75,  $185.25. 
When  it  is  remembered  that  these  returns  were  from  |  acre 
of  trees  that  had  been  neglected  for  30  years,  they  seem  sur- 
prisingly large. 

Quince  trees  generally  begin  to  bear  a  small  quantity  of  fruit 
the  third  or  the  fourth  year  after  being  planted.  They  should 
be  in  full  bearing  in  10  years  after  being  planted,  when  an 
annual  yield  of  a  bushel  to  a  tree  can  be  expected.  The  life 
of  a  tree  after  coming  into  bearing  averages  from  30  to  40  years. 

The  demand  for  quinces  would  undoubtedly  increase  were 
more  fruit  of  good  quality  offered  for  sale.  Quinces  are  very 
acceptable  for  canning,  evaporating,  and  the  making  of  jelly, 
marmalade,  and.  preserves,  and  when  boiled  and  served  hot 
with  cream  or  butter  they  are  an  excellent  dessert ;  another  use 
is  to  bake  them  with  Pound  Sweet  apples  to  be  served  as  baked 
apple  and  quince.     The  Chicago  market  will    take  a  large 


32  CHERRIES,  APRICOTS,  AND  QUINCES        §  20 

quantity  of  fruit  for  this  last-named  purpose;  in  fact,  they  are 
used  to  such  an  extent  for  this  purpose  that  the  supply  of 
quinces  has  an  influence  on  the  price  of  Pound  Sweet  apples. 
The  price  of  apples  of  this  variety  is  likely  to  be  low,  if  but 
few  quinces  are  offered  on  the  market. 

Among  the  points  that  can  be  given  in  favor  of  growing 
quinces  commercially  are:  (1)  The  trees  are  almost  sure  to 
bear  regularly  if  they  have  the  proper  care ;  (2)  as  the  trees  are 
small,  seldom  averaging  over  15  feet  in  height,  they  are  easily 
sprayed  and  pruned,  and  the  fruit  is  easily  thinned  and  har- 
vested; (3)  quinces  are  late  bloomers,  usually  not  coming  into 
blossom  until  all  danger  of  frost  has  passed ;  (4)  the  fruit  is  not 
very  perishable,  being  about  like  apples  in  this  respect;  (5)  the 
prices  received  for  first-class  fruit  have  in  the  past  been  large, 
and  it  is  to  be  expected  that,  even  with  a  marked  increase  in 
acreage,  the  prices  will  continue  to  be  large,  as  there  would 
be  a  tendency  to  increase  the  consiunption  if  enough  quinces 
were  offered  for  sale  to  let  consimiers  learn  of  the  many  good 
qualities  of  this  excellent  fruit. 


IMPORTANT  VARIETIES  OF  QUINCES 

48.  Descriptions  of  some  of  the  important  varieties  of 
quinces  suitable  for  planting  in  the  United  States  and  Canada 
are  given  below.  Several  other  varieties  are  sold  by  nursery- 
men, but  those  described  are  the  most  important  ones  for  both 
home  and  commercial  planting. 

The  Orange,  or  as  it  is  also  known,  the  Apple  quince,  one  of 
which  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  9,  is  probably  the  most  important 
commercial  variety.  The  tree  is  a  moderately  vigorous  grower 
and  has  wide,  spreading  branches.  The  fruit  is  variable  in  size 
and  shape  and  may  be  pear  shaped  or  be  flattened  on  the  end 
like  an  apple.  The  color  of  the  fruit  is  a  pale  orange  and  the 
surface  is  moderately  covered  with  down.  The  flesh  is  very 
firm  and  of  a  good  flavor.  When  grown  under  the  most  favor- 
able conditions,  the  fruit  of  this  variety  can  be  kept  until 
February.     It  ripens  about  mid-season. 


§  20        CHERRIES,  APRICOTS,  AND  QUINCES  33 

The  Champion  is  an  American  variety  of  quince  of  rather 
recent  origin.  The  tree  is  an  upright  grower  and  usually  attains 
a  somewhat  greater  height  than  trees  of  the  Orange  variety. 
The  fruit  is  large  and  pear  shaped  and  is  furrowed  about  the 
stem.  The  color  is  generally  a  greenish  yellow,  and  the  fruit  is 
covered  with  a  prominent  fuzz.     The  quinces  are  late  in  matur- 


FiG.  9 

ing  and  in  some  sections  do  not  ripen  well,  but  when  grown 
under  good  conditions  the  fruit  is  said  to  be  one  of  the  best 
keepers. 

The  fruit  of  the  Rea,  is  from  a  third  to  a  half  larger 
than  the  fruit  of  the  Orange  variety.  The  tree  is  small,  as  a 
rule,  only  about  two-thirds  the  size  of  trees  of  the  Orange. 

248—34 


34 


CHERRIES,  APRICOTS,  AND  QUINCES        §20 


The  fruit  is  large  to  very  large.  The  color  is  orange  and  the 
surface  is  generally  smooth,  lacking  the  pronounced  fuzz  of 
the  varieties  previously  described.  The  fruit  is  of  good  quality 
and  ripens  early  but  does  not  keep  as  well  as  fruit  of  the  Orange. 


Fig.  10 

The  trees  need  good  cultivation  for  the  best  success.     A  quince 
of  this  variety  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  10. 

The  tree  of  the  Meech,  also  known  as  the  Meech  Prolific, 
variety  of  quince  is  something  like  that  of  the  Orange  variety. 
The  trees  have  the  spreading  habit  well  developed.  They  bear 
young  and  are  usually  good  croppers.  The  fruit  is  of  good 
appearance  but  is  inclined  to  be  small,  and  largely  for  this 
reason  it  is  not  as  valuable  for  market  purposes  as  the  fruit 


rx 


20 


CHERRIES,  APRICOTS,  AND  QUINCES 


35 


of  some  of  the  other  varieties.  In  some  sections  it  is  claimed 
to  be  one  of  the  most  productive  of  varieties,  but  in  other 
sections  this  claim  has  not  been  borne  out. 

The  Missouri,  or  Missouri  Mammoth,  is  a  variety  of  quince 
that  is  generally  regarded  as  being  very  prolific.  The  tree 
is  large,  in  fact,  the  largest  of  any  of  the  varieties  of  quinces 


Fig.  11 

described.  The  trees  bear  reasonably  young,  and,  as  a  rule, 
give  fair  crops.  The  fruit  is  of  fair  size  and  is  rich  and  aromatic. 

The  Bourgeat  is  a  variety  of  quince  that  can  be  held  in 
storage  until  spring.  The  tree  is  a  strong  grower  and  is  regarded 
as  being  a  very  good  bearer.  The  fruit  is  large  in  size,  of  a 
bright  yellow  color,  and  has  a  very  small  core;  its  keeping  qual- 
ity is  of  the  best. 

The  Van  Deman  variety  of  quince  is  a  recent  introduction 
of  Luther  Burbank,  of  California,  and  by  some  it  is  claimed  to 


36  CHERRIES,  APRICOTS,  AND  QUINCES        §  20 

be  one  of  the  hardiest  and  surest  bearers  in  existence.  The  fruit 
ripens  throughout  a  comparatively  long  season,  and  it  is  claimed 
to  have  excellent  keeping  qualities. 

The  Pear  variety  of  quince,  illustrated  in  Fig.  11,  is  grown 
to  a  limited  extent  in  quince-producing  regions.  The  trees  are 
of  average  size  and  are  considered  to  be  moderate  bearers. 
The  fruit  ranges  from  medium  to  large  in  size;  the  skin  is  a 
diill  reddish  yellow,  covering  a  firm,  tough,  and  rather  dry  flesh. 
The  flavor  is  good  but  slightly  inferior  to  that  of  the  Orange 
variety.  The  fruit  ripens  late  and  has  excellent  shipping 
qualities. 

QUINCE- ORCHARD  ESTABLISHMENT 

49.  Selection  of  Location. — In  selecting  a  location  for 
the  establishment  of  a  quince  orchard,  about  the  same  factors 
should  be  considered  as  with  any  of  the  other  tree  fruits, 
except  that,  on  account  of  the  late  blooming  habit  of  the  trees, 
a  location  somewhat  more  subject  to  early  spring  frosts,  may 
be  chosen  if  desired. 

The  best  type  of  soil  for  quinces  is  generally  conceded  to 
be  a  clay  loam  that  is  fairly  retentive  of  moisture,  but  one 
that  is  well  drained.  On  very  light  soils  the  trees  grow  quicldy, 
but  they  are  short  lived  and  usually  unproductive. 

50.  Selection  of  Varieties. — Although  but  few  varieties 
of  quinces  are  found  in  cultivation,  in  establishing  a  grove  it  is 
generally  a  good  plan  to  plant  several  varieties  that  mature  at 
different  times  during  the  season,  in  order  that  the  fruit  may  be 
had  in  succession.  As  with  other  fruits,  it  is  well  to  ascertain, 
if  possible,  from  growers  in  the  vicinity  which  varieties  do  best 
in  the  locality  where  the  trees  are  to  be  planted. 

51.  Propagation  of  Quinces. — The  quince  can  be  propa- 
gated in  one  of  four  ways:  (1)  By  budding,  (2)  by  mound 
layering,  (3)  by  root  grafting,  and  (4)  by  cuttings.  The 
budding  method  is  the  one  most  often  employed  by  nursery- 
men. Seedlings  of  a  variety  known  as  Angers  which  are 
imported  from  France,  are.  used  as  stocks,  and  after  budded 
they  are  trained  either  in  a  tree  or  a  bush  form,  according  to 


§  20        CHERRIES,  APRICOTS,  AND  QUINCES  37 

the  ideas  of  the  nurseryman.  If  they  are  received  from  the 
nursery  as  bushes,  the  head  being  formed  within  6  or  7  inches 
of  the  ground,  the  orchardist  can  form  a  permanent  head  at 
whatever  height  he  desires.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  nursery- 
man trains  the  young  plant  in  the  tree  form,  the  head  will  be 
formed  when  the  grower  receives  the  trees,  and  he  will  have  no 
opportunity  to  form  the  head  according  to  his  own  desires. 

When  quinces  are  propagated  by  mound  layering  an  old 
plant  is  cut  back  to  encourage  a  growth  of  sprouts,  and  when 
these  are  well  started  a  mound  of  soil  is  thrown  over  the  crown. 
After  the  sprouts  have  taken  root  they  are  detached  and  sold 
as  young  quince  plants.  A  disadvantage  of  mound-layered 
plants  is  their  tendency  to  form  numerous  sprouts  after  being 
planted. 

In  root  grafting,  the  quince  scions  are  grafted  on  apple-tree 
roots.  After  being  allowed  to  grow  for  a  year  the  roots  are 
dug  and  if  the  quince  scions  have  formed  roots  the  apple  roots 
are  removed  and  the  young  quince  replanted. 

Nurserymen  who  have  light  soils  sometimes  propagate  the 
quince  by  hardwood  cuttings.  These  cuttings  are  placed  in 
the  soil  and  after  they  take  root  are  transplanted. 

52.  Purchasing  of  Young  Quince  Trees. — When  pur- 
chasing young  quince  trees,  it  is  important  that  a  grower  visit 
the  nursery  and  select  the  trees  himself.  He  should  aim  to  get 
thrifty,  vigorous  specimens,  preferably  those  not  older  than 
2  years  from  the  time  of  budding.  They  should  be  headed 
low,  not  more  than  10  inches  from  the  ground.  Too  often  pur- 
chasers try  to  get  as  large  a  tree  as  they  can  for  a  given  price. 
This  is  a  mistake,  for  such  trees  are  usually  headed  too  high, 
and  they  are  likely  to  be  3  or  4  years  old  and  to  be  culls  from 
previous  years.  The  young  trees  should  be  examined  carefully 
for  borers,  and  any  that  show  signs  of  injury  from  this  insect 
should  be  discarded.  Trees  showing  evidence  of  fire  blight 
should  also  be  discarded,  for  they  will  not  only  be  practically 
worthless  themselves  but  will  carry  infection  to  other  trees. 

The  purchaser  should  guard  against  getting  seedling  trees — 
that  is,  those  on  which  the  buds  of  the  cultivated  variety  did 


38  CHERRIES,  APRICOTS,  AND  QUINCES        §20 

not  take.  Often  as  high  as  30  or  40  per  cent,  of  the  buds  fail 
to  grow,  and  unless  the  young  trees  are  carefully  examined  a 
large  percentage  are  very  likely  to  be  seedlings.  With  a  little 
practice,  however,  it  is  not  difhcult  to  tell  the  seedlings  from 
the  cultivated  varieties,  for  the  distance  between  the  buds  on 
the  twigs  of  the  seedlings  is  usually  much  less  than  in  the  case 
of  cultivated  varieties.  In  view  of  the  fact  that  there  is  such  a 
likelihood  of  getting  seedling  stock,  it  will  pay  the  grower,  when 
purchasing  quince  trees,  to  deal  with  a  reliable  nurseryman, 
one  from  whom  redress  can  be  secured  if  the  trees  prove  to  be 
untrue  to  name. 

53.  Planting  of  Quince  Trees. — Quince  trees  may  be 
planted  either  in  the  spring  or  the  fall,  but  probably  the  major- 
ity of  growers  prefer  spring  planting.  When  planting  in  the 
spring,  it  is  advantageous  to  get  the  trees  from  a  near-by  nursery 
so  that  they  can  be  placed  in  the  ground  a  day  or  so  after  being 
dug,  preferably  the  next  day.  Experience  shows  that  trees 
planted  soon  after  being  taken  from  the  nursery  make  a  much 
more  satisfactory  growth  than  those  dug  the  faU.  previous  and 
stored  during  the  winter.  With  fall-planted  trees  it  is  also 
an  advantage  if  the  trees  are  planted  soon  after  being  taken 
from  the  nursery  row. 

When  the  quince  is  planted  soon  after  being  taken  from  the 
nursery  row  and  if  it  has  a  good  head  started  within  a  few 
inches  of  the  ground,  all  the  pruning  necessary  at  the  time  of 
planting  is  to  remove  any  excess  of  limbs,  not  even  cutting 
back  the  terminal.  However,  if  the  tree  has  become  dried  in 
shipment  and  the  tips  of  the  limbs  are  dead,  all  such  parts 
shoiild  be  pruned  ofif. 

The  preparation  of  the  soil,  the  laying  out  of  the  grove, 
and  the  setting  of  the  trees  are  the  same  for  the  quince  as  for 
other  tree  fruits.  It  is  especially  important  in  the  case  of 
quince  trees,  however,  that  the  soil  be  tamped  well  about  the 
roots.  For  commercial  planting,  quince  trees  should  be  placed 
about  15  feet  apart  each  way.  The  trees  will  then  have  suf- 
ficient room  in  which  to  develop  a  low,  spreading  head.  Too 
close  planting  is  as  unadvisable  as  for  other  kinds  of  fruit  trees. 


20        CHERRIES,  APRICOTS,  AND  QUINCES  39 


MANAGEMENT  OF  QUINCE  ORCHARD 

54.  Pruning. — The  question  of  how  much  or  how  httle 
to  prune  quince  trees  is  one  on  which  growers  do  not  agree. 
Some  prune  their  trees  severely,  as  much  as  one-half  of  the  new 
growth  each  year,  but  such  men  are  usually  those  who  force 
the  trees  with  nitrogenous  fertilizers,  and  who  must  therefore 
prune  severely  to  keep  the  trees  within  bounds.  Other  growers 
allow  the  trees  practically  to  grow  at  wUl  from  the  time  they 
are  planted  until  they  come  into  bearing,  pruning  only  enough 
to  keep  the  fire  blight  in  subjection  and  to  keep  them  headed 
back  slightly.  Most  growers  agree,  however,  that  after  the 
trees  come  into  bearing,  some  annual  heading  in  and  cutting 
back  of  fruit-bearing  branches  is  desirable  in  order  to  improve 
the  size  of  the  fruit.  This  cutting  back  of  fruit-bearing  wood  has 
the  same  effect  as  thinning,  for  the  quince,  like  the  peach,  bears 
fruit  on  wood  of  the  previous  year's  growth.  Pruning  should 
not  be  so  excessive,  however,  as  to  cause  a  large  growth  of  tender 
sprouts,  for  such  growth  is  subject  to  attacks  of  fire  blight. 

55.  Spraying. — ^As  with  other  fruits,  combined  fungicidal 
and  insecticidal  sprays  are  used  for  quince  trees.  Following 
is  a  system  that  is  in  use  by  several  successful  growers: 

1.  Just  before  the  blossoms  open,  spray  with  Bordeaux 
mixture  (6  pounds  of  copper  sulphate,  6  pounds  of  lime,  water 
slaked,  50  gallons  of  water) ;  Bordeaux  mixture  appears  to  be 
well  adapted  to  the  requirements  of  the  quince.  Arsenate  of 
lead  (2  or  3  pounds  of  arsenate  of  lead  to  50  gallons  of  fungi- 
cide solution)  should  also  be  used  with  the  fungicide  spray  at 
this  time.  This  spraying  is  for  the  control  of  leaf  and  fruit 
spot  or  black  spot,  rust,  and  curculio. 

2.  Immediately  after  the  blossoms  have  fallen,  or  even 
while  the  last  of  the  petals  are  falling,  spray  with  Bordeaux 
mixture  (3  pounds  of  copper  sulphate,  4  pounds  of  lime,  water 
slaked,  50  gallons  of  water)  and  arsenate  of  lead  (2|  or  3  pounds 
of  arsenate  of  lead  to  50  gallons  of  spray  solution) .  This  spray- 
ing is  for  the  control  of  the  same  troubles  mentioned  in  para- 
graph 1. 


40  CHERRIES,  APRICOTS,  AND  QUINCES        §20 

3.  From  three  to  four  other  sprayings  at  intervals  of  10  days 
after  the  spraying  described  in  paragraph  2  will  be  sufficient 
to  keep  the  fruit  and  foliage  in  excellent  condition. 

56.  Cultivating  and  Cover  Cropping. — ^A  quince  grove 
should  be  kept  well  cultivated  until  some  time  in  July,  when 
a  cover  crop  should  be  sown,  and  as  the  quince  is  comparatively 
shallow  rooted,  cultivation  should  be  shallow.  The  kind  of 
cover  crop  to  use  will  depend  largely  on  the  richness  of  the  soil. 
If  the  soil  is  deficient  in  nitrogen,  a  legimiinous  crop  should 
be  sown,  but  if  the  trees  seem  thrifty  and  not  in  need  of  new 
wood  growth,  some  non-legimiinous  crop  should  be  used.  The 
non-legumes  recommended  as  cover  crops  for  plum  and  cherry 
orchards  are  applicable  for  quince  groves. 

57.  Intercropping  of  a  Quince  Orchard. — ^While  the 
quince  orchard  is  young,  beans  or  some  other  cultivated  crop 
may  be  grown  between  the  trees,  but  owing  to  the  short  dis- 
tance between  trees  there  is  usually  little  profit  in  the  extra 
crop.  The  better  plan  seems  to  be  to  keep  all  the  space  between 
the  trees  well  cultivated  until  the  cover  crop  is  sown  in  July. 

58.  Fertilizers  for  Quince  Groves. — In  many  of  the 
best  commercial  quince  groves,  barnyard  manure  is  applied 
each  year,  enough  being  used  to  keep  the  trees  in  good  but  not 
excessive  growth.  In  other  orchards,  commercial  fertilizer 
containing  phosphoric  acid  and  potash  is  used,  the  nitrogen 
supply  coming  from  legimiinous  cover  crops.  The  quan- 
tities that  have  been  used  by  some  successful  growers  in  New 
York  State  are  from  300  to  500  pounds  of  acid  phosphate  and 
from  200  to  300  pounds  of  muriate  of  potash  per  acre.  Other 
growers  use  from  200  to  400  pounds  of  ground  bone  and  from 
200  to  300  pounds  of  muriate  of  potash  per  acre.  If  a  com- 
plete mixed  fertilizer  is  desired,  it  shoiild  analyze  2  per  cent, 
nitrogen,  8  per  cent,  phosphoric  acid,  and  10  per  cent,  potash. 
From  400  to  800  potinds  per  acre  is  the  usual  range  of  applica- 
tion. An  excessive  wood  growth  should  not  be  encouraged  for 
quince  trees,  and  for  this  reason  fertilizers  excessively  rich  in 
nitrogen  should  be  used  sparingly,  if  at  all. 


§  20        CHERRIES,  APRICOTS,  AND  QUINCES  41 

59.  Treatment  of  Winter-Killed  Quince  Trees. — Fre- 
quently young  quince  trees,  and  sometimes  mature  trees,  are 
injured  by  winter  killing.  If  the  lower  part  of  winter-injured 
trees  is  covered  with  snow  there  is  likely  to  be  life  left  below  the 
snow  level.  In  such  a  case,  if  the  top  is  removed  before  growth 
starts  in  the  spring,  the  tree  may  form  a  new  head.  The  dead 
parts  should  be  removed  early  in  March  so  that  growth  can 
start  early. 

60.  Protecting  Quince  Trees  From  Mice. — Mice  fre- 
quently injure  the  trunks  of  young  quince  trees,  and  to  guard 
against  them  it  is  well  to  provide  the  trees  with  wire  guards, 
especially  during  the  winter  months.  Painting  the  trunk 
with  white  paint  is  often  advised  for  this  trouble,  but  it  is  less 
effective  than  the  use  of  wire  guards. 


HARVESTING  AND  MARKETING  OF  QUINCES 

61.  The  quince  is  ready  for  harvesting  as  soon  as  the 
fruit  has  turned  a  good  color.  Picking  is  done  in  the  same 
manner  as  for  apples.  Great  care  should  be  taken  not  to 
bruise  the  fruit,  because  each  bruise  soon  becomes  a  dark- 
brown  spot  that  detracts  greatly  from  the  appearance  of  the 
product. 

The  fruit  should  be  carefully  graded,  and  at  the  time  grading 
is  done  each  quince  should  be  wiped  with  a  cloth  to  remove  the 
fuzz  adhering  to  the  surface.  The  removal  of  this  fuzz  causes 
the  fruit  to  have  a  better  appearance  than  otherwise.  Most 
growers  make  three  grades  of  quinces,  besides  the  culls.  Each 
grower  generally  has  his  own  standard  of  grading,  but  as  a 
rule  the  first-grade  fruit  will  consist  of  quinces  of  the  largest 
size  and  best  color.  That  placed  in  the  second  grade  will  be 
somewhat  smaller  in  size,  and  some  of  the  quinces  may  be 
slightly  off  color.  The  third-class  fruit  wiU  be  made  up  of 
small  sized  but  sound  fruit  and  some  poorly  colored  specimens 
of  fair  size. 

The  first  and  second  grades  are  usually  packed  in  small  con- 
tainers, the  very  best  often  being  placed  in  peck-size  climax 


42  CHERRIES,  APRICOTS,  AND  QUINCES        §  20 

baskets,  and  the  second  grade  in  kegs  holding  about  a  bushel, 
or  sometimes  in  half  barrels.  The  third-grade  fruit  is  usually 
packed  in  standard  apple  barrels. 

Quinces  are  not  often  held  in  storage,  as  there  is  generally 
a  sufficient  demand  in  the  fall  to  induce  growers  to  sell  at  that 
season  of  the  3^ear.  The  fruit  can  be  kept  in  cellar  storage  as 
late  as  January  or  February.  The  temperature  recommended 
for  quinces  in  cold  storage  is  35°  F. 

The  problems  involved  in  the  marketing  of  apples  are  applic- 
able also  to  quinces.  The  demand  is,  as  a  rule,  very  good, 
and  growers  have  practically  no  difficulty  in  disposing  of  their 
crops.  When  possible  to  do  so,  it  seems  that  the  retailing  of 
quinces  locally  is  a  good  method  of  marketing.  A  small  pack- 
age can  be  used,  and  consumers  will  soon  learn  of  the  merits 
of  the  fruit  and  buy  accordingly. 


QUINCE  PESTS  AND  INJURIES 

62.  The  quince  is  subject  to  attack  by  the  San  Jose  scale, 
the  codling  moth,  borers,  and  the  quince  curculio. 

Although  the  San  Jose  scale  attacks  quince  trees,  it  does  them 
but  little  harm,  as  the  trees  seem  able  to  withstand  the  effects 
of  this  insect  without  appreciable  injury.  However,  since  the 
scale  can  be  spread  from  one  species  of  plant  to  another,  it  is 
sometimes  well  to  spray  dormant  quince  trees  with  lime- 
sulphur  solution  in  order  to  prevent  the  scale  from  spreading. 

63.  The  codling  moth  injures  the  quince  in  the  same 
manner  that  it  injures  the  apple  and  pear,  and  can  be  con- 
trolled in  the  same  way — that  is,  by  spraying  with  an  arsenical 
poison. 

64.  The  round-headed  apple-tree  borer  causes  con- 
siderable injury  to  quince  trees  unless  precautions  are  taken  to 
remove  the  insects,  which  are  found  from  a  point  about  2  or 
3  inches  below  the  ground  level  to  1  or  2  feet  above  the  ground. 
They  excavate  burrows  in  the  trunk  and  crown  and  can  be 
destroyed  by  digging  into  the  burrows  with  a  sharp  knife  or  wire, 


§  20        CHERRIES,  APRICOTS,  AND  QUINCES  43 

after  which  the  wounds  should  be  disinfected  with  mercuric- 
chloride  solution  of  a  strength  of  1  to  1,000,  and  if  a  serious 
wound  has  been  made  it  shoiild  be  covered  with  grafting  wax. 

65.  The  quince  curculio  is  a  snout  beetle  somewhat 
larger  than  the  plum  curculio,  and  is  broader  shouldered  and 
has  a  longer  snout.  Two  views  of  this  beetle  are  shown  in 
Fig.  12.  The  size  is  indicated  by  the  vertical  line.  The 
beetles  are  ashy  gray  in  color,  mottled  with  ocher  yellow  and 
white.  On  the  wing  covers  are  seven  narrow  longitudinal 
elevations  with  two  rows  of  dots  between  each.  The  beetles 
appear  some  time  during  June,  when  they  puncture  the  imma- 
ture fruit,  making  cylindrical  holes  in  which  they  deposit 
their  eggs.  The  eggs  hatch  in  a  few  days  and  the  larvas  make 
burrows  into  the  fruit  near  the 
surface,  not  penetrating  the  core. 
In  about  a  month  the  larvas 
become  full  grown  and  leave  the 
fruit  and  bury  themselves  in  the 
ground,  where  they  remain  until 
May,  when  they  pupate.  In  a 
few  days  the  beetles  appear  and 
soon  begin  to  puncture  the  fruit 
and  deposit  their  eggs.  This  in- 
sect is  combated  by  spraying  the  foliage  with  an  arsenical 
poison,  sometimes  by  jarring  the  trees  as  described  for  plums, 
and  also  by  collecting  the  fruit  that  falls  prematurely  to  the 
ground. 

66.  The  bag  worm,  known  also  as  the  basket  worm, 
described  previously  as  affecting  apples,  also  attacks  the  quince. 
It  can  be  combated  by  gathering  and  destroying,  during  the 
winter,  the  cases  that  contain  the  eggs  for  the  next  brood. 

67.  Among  the  most  destructive  diseases  affecting  the 
(Quince  are  fire  blight,  or  pear  blight;  fruit  spot,  or  leaf  blight; 
rust;  black  rot;  ripe  rot;  pale  rot;  and  quince  rust. 

68.  Fire  blight,  or  pear  blight,  is  the  most  destructive  dis- 
ease of  the  quince,  and  as  in  the  case  of  the  pear  can  be  combated 


u 


CHERRIES,  APRICOTS,  AND  QUINCES 


20 


only  by  preventing  infection  and  by  destroying  infected 
parts.  The  grove  should  be  gone  over  once  or  even  twice  a 
week  during  the  growing  season;  every  leaf  and  twig  that 
shows  infection  should  be  removed  and  the  cut  surfaces  dis- 
infected with  a  solution  of  mercuric  chloride  of  a  strength  of 
1  to  1,000.  This  solution  may  be  applied  with  a  swab.  It 
is  advisable  to  cut  off  the  limb  about  8  to  10  inches  below  the 


Fig.  13 

point  of  apparent  infection.  All  parts  removed  from  the  trees 
must  be  taken  from  the  orchard  and  burned  to  prevent  fur- 
ther infection  of  the  trees.  Any  trees  growing  wild  in  the 
vicinity  that  show  evidence  of  the  blight  should  be  removed 
and  burned.     The  wild  haw  is  very  likely  to  carry  this  disease. 

69.     Fruit  spot,  or  leaf  blight,  affects  both  the  leaves  and 
the  fruit  of  the  quince.     The  leaves  become  spotted  and  drop 


20 


CHERRIES,  APRICOTS,  AND  QUINCES 


45 


prematurely,  causing  the  tree  to  lose  vigor  and  vitality.  The 
fruit  becomes  covered  with  small  brownish  spots  that  gradually 
increase  in  size  and  turn  black.  Fig.  13  shows  quinces  affected 
with  fruit  spot.  The  disease  is  controlled  by  spraying  with 
Bordeaux  mixture  or  lime-sulphur.     The  first  spraying  should 


^' 


Fig.  14 

be  made  just  before  the  blossoms  open,  and  the  second  soon 
after  they  fall.  Two  more  sprayings  at  intervals  of  10  days 
or  2  weeks  will  be  found  beneficial. 

70.  Black  rot  and  ripe  rot  are  similar  to  these  diseases 
of  the  apple,  and  are  combated  in  the  same  manner  as  for  the 
apple.  The  same  treatment  is  also  effective  for  pale  rot, 
which  is  often  a  very  destructive  disease  of  the  quince.  This 
rot  begins  as  a  pale  almost  colorless  soft  spot  on  the  skin  of 
the  fruit.     The  spot  soon  wrinkles  and  turns  a  pale  blue  and 


46  CHERRIES,  APRICOTS,  AND  QUINCES        §  20 

the  skin  becomes  ruptured.     The  disease  spreads  rapidly  and 
soon  destroys  the  fruit. 

71.  The  disease  known  as  quince  rust  is  similar  to  apple 
rust,  and,  like  the  latter,  comes  from  adjacent  cedar  trees  and 
produces  swellings  or  the  so-called  cedar  apples.  The  trouble 
affects  both  the  fruit  and  the  leaves  of  the  quince.  Fig.  14 
illustrates  the  effects  of  the  quince  rust.  The  remedy  for  the 
trouble  is  to  remove,  if  possible,  all  cedar  trees  from  the  neigh- 
borhood of  the  grove.  Another  method  of  control  is  to  spray 
the  affected  trees  with  Bordeaux  mixture  or  with  one  of  the 
sulphur  compoiinds  at  the  time  the  gelatinous  horns  are  pres- 
ent on  the  cedar  apples. 


INDEX 


Note. — All  items  in  this  index  refer  first  to  the  section  (see  the  Preface)  and  then  to  the  page 
of  the  section.  Thus,  "Anjou  pear,  §8,  p21,"  means  that  Anjou  pear  will  be  found  on  page  21 
of  section  8. 


Advertising  of  fruit,  §7,  p56 

Age  of  apple  nursery  trees,  §4,  pl7 

Agitator,  Propeller,'  §2,  p44 

Swinging,  §2,  p44 
Air  drainage  for  pear  orchards,  §9,  p9 
Albemarle  Pippin  apple,  §3,  p39 
Alexander  apple,  §3,  plO 
Altitude,  Influence  of,  §1,  p4 
Amarelle  cherries,  §20,  pi 
Ammoniacal  copper  carbonate,  |2,  p25 
Angouleme  pear,  §8,  pl7 
Anjou  pear,  §8,  p21 
Anthracnose,  Apple,  §6,  p62 
Aphides   affecting   apple  trees.    Miscellaneous, 

§6,  p56 
Aphis,  Black  cherry,  §20,  p20 

Clover,  §6,  p57 

European  grain,  §6,  p57 

Green  apple,  §6,  p55 

on  pears,  Green  apple,  §8,  p39 

Rosy  apple,  §6,  p56 

Wooly  apple,  §6,  p52 
Apple  anthracnose,  §6,  p62 

aphis.  Green,  §6,  p55 

aphis  on  pears.  Green,  §8,  p39 

aphis.  Rosy,  §6,  p56 

aphis,  Wooly,  §6,  p52 

barrel.  §7,  p21 

baskets,  §7,  p24 

blossoms,  Frost  injury  to,  §6,  p4 

blotch,  §6,  p67 

box  presses,  §7,  p38 

boxes,  §7,  p22 

buds.  Frost  injury  to,  §6,  p3 

butter.  §7,  p60 

caterpillar.  Red-humped,  §6,  p43 

caterpillar.  Yellow-necked,  §6,  p42 

cider.  §7,  p61 

crates  and  boxes,  §7,  pll 


Apple  curculio,  §6,  p37 

diseases,  §6.  p61 

Insects  of  the,  §6.  p23 

jelly,  §7,  p60 

leaf  miner,  §6,  p51 

louse.  Green,  §6,  p55 

maggot,  §6.  p34 

nursery  stock,  Selection  of.  §4.  pl5 

nursery  trees.  Age  of,  §4,  pl7 

nursery  trees.  Dipping  of.  §4,  p39 

nursery  trees  for  planting.   Preparation  of, 
§4,  p38 

nursery  trees.  Handling  of,  §4,  p44 

nursery  trees  propagated  by  various  methods. 
Value  of,  §4,  pl7 
^.orchard.  Establishment  of  an,  §4,  pi 
^-orchard,  Soil  suitable  for,  §4,  p6 
^_prchards.  Fertilization  of,  §5,  p37 
orchards.  Management  of,  §5,  pi 
-erchards.  Renovation  of  old,  §5,  p41 
..,orchards.  Tillage  of  bearing,  §5,  p4 
jDrchards,  Tillage  of  young,  §5,  p2 
.  packing  table,  §7,  pp27.  30 

pests  and  injuries,  §6.  pi  ) 

quince,  §20.  p32  ' "' 

railroad  worm.  §6,  p34 

rust,  §6,  p71 

scab,  §6,  p64 

scald,  §6,  p74 

Shippers  Association,  National,  §7.  pl5 

storage  houses,  §7,  p43 

Terms  applying  to  fruit  of,  §3,  pi 

-tree     borer     on     quinces,     Round-headed. 
§20,  p42 

-tree  borers,  §6.  p23 

-tree  bucculatrix,  §6,  p51 

-tree  pruner,  §6,  p61 

-tree  tent  caterpillar,  §6,  p37 
'     trees,  Fertilization  of  young,  §5,  p41 

trees.  Framework  of,  §5,  p26 


248—37 


IX 


INDEX 


Apple  trees,  High-headed,  §5,  p21 

trees.  Home  propagation  of,  §4,  pl9 

trees.  Low-headed,  §5,  p21 

trees.  Miscellaneous  aphides  affecting,  §6,  p56 

trees.  Open-headed,  §5,  p23 

trees.  Planting  of,  §4,  pl9 

trees.  Pruning  of,  §5,  pl8 

trees.  Pruning  of  bearing,  §5,  p31 

trees.  Pyramidal-headed,  §3,  p23 

ti-ees,  Terms  applying  to,  §3,  pi 

trees,  Top  working  of,  §5,  poO 

vinegar,  §7,  p61 

worm.  Lesser,  §6,  p34 
Apples,  Advertising  of,  §7,  p56 

Canned,  §7,  p60 

Cedar,  §6,  p72 

Evaporated,  §7,  p56 

Fall  and  winter  varieties  of,  §3,  p9 

for  the  Colorado  section.  Varieties  of,  §4,  pl4 

for  the  Missouri  section,  Varieties  of,  §1,  pl4 

for  the  New  York  section,  Varieties  of,  §4,  pl3 

for  the  Northwest,  Varieties  of,  §4,  pl5 

for  the  Virginia  section.  Varieties  of,  §4,  pl3 

Frost  injury  to  young,  §6,  po 

Grading  of,  §7,  pl4 

Harvesting  of,  §7,  pi 

in  barrels.  Packing  of,  §7,  p24 

in  baskets.  Packing  of,  §7,  p40 

in  boxes.  Packing  of,  §7,  p29 

Marketing  of,  §7,  p48 

Method  of  grading,  §7,  p20 

Methods  of  planting  of,  §4,  p35 

Packing  of,  §7,  p21 

Packs  for,  §7,  p33 

Picking  of,  §7,  pi 

Selection  of  varieties  of,  §4,  pll 

Storing  of,  §7,  p40 

Summer  varieties  of,  §3,  p6 

Thinning  of,  §5,  p35 

Varieties  of,  §3,  pi 

Wagon  used  in  picking,  §7,  p9 
Apricot  nursery  trees,  §20,  p25 

orchards,  Fertilization  of,  §20,  p27 

orchards.  Renovating,  §20,  p27 

pests  and  injuries,  §20,  p28 

trees,  Planting  of,  §20,  p26 

trees.  Pruning  of,  §20,  p26 
Apricots,  Drying  of,  §20,  p30 

Grading  and  packing  of,  §20,  p29 

Harvesting  of,  §20,  p28 

Marketing  of,  §20,  p29 

Varieties  of,  §20,  p24 
Arkansas  apple,  §3,  p45 

Black  apple,  §3,  p34 
Arsenate  of  lead,  §2,  pi  • 

Arsenite  of  lime,  §2,  ppl,  4 
Artificial  propagation,  §1,  pl4 


Association,  National  Apple  Shippers,  §7,  pl5 

Yakima  Valley  Fruit  Growers,  §7,  pl6 
Autumn  frosts.  Table  of  dates  of  late  spring  and 
early,  §6,  p9 

B 

Bag  worm  on  quinces,  §20,  x>43 
Bags,  Picking,  §7,  p4 
Baldwin  apple,  §3,  pl9 

cherry,  §20,  p3 

spot,  §6,  p74 
Bamboo  extension  rod.  Brass-,  §2,  p42 
Banana  apple,  §3,  pl9 
Bark  beetle.  Fruit-tree,  §6,  p60 

beetle  on  pears,  Fruit-tree,  §8,  p39 

binding,  §6,  p79 

binding  of  pear  trees,  §8,  p43 

grafting,  §1,  pp20,  25 

louse,  Oyster-shell,  §6,  p29 

Rough,  §6,  pSO 
Barrel  sprayers,  §2,  p32 

Barrels,    Apple,    pear,     quince,     and    potato, 
§7,  p21 

Packing  of  apples  in,  §7,  p24 
Barry  pear,  Patrick,  §8,  p25 
Bartlett  pear,  §8,  pl3 
Basket  worm  on  quinces,  §20,  p43 
Baskets,  Apple,  §7,  p24 

Packing  of  apples  in,  §7,  p30 

Picking,  §7,  pi 
Baume  and  specific  gravity  hydrometer  read- 
ings for  liquids  heavier  than  water.  Table 
of  comparison  of,  §2,  plG 
Bearing  apple  trees,  Pruning  of,  §5,  p31 
Beetle,  Fruit-tree  bark,  §6,  p60 

on  pears,  Fruit-tree  bark,  §8,  p39 
Belle  de  Montreuil  cherry,  §20,  p6 
Ben  Davis  apple,  §3,  p40 
Benoni  apple,  §3,  p8 
Bigarreau  cherries,  §20,  p2 
Bin  rot,  §6,  p70     , 
Binding  of  apple  trees.  Bark,  §6,  p79 

of  pear  trees.  Bark,  §8,  p43 
Bing  cherry,  §20,  p6 
Bitter  pit,  §6,  p74 

rot,  §6,  pp62,  70 
Black  Ben  apple,  §3,  p41 

Ben  Davis  apple,  §3,  p41 

cherry  aphis,  §20,  p20     . 

Gillifiower  apple,  §3,  p23 

knot  of  cherries,  §20,  p21 

rot,  §6,  p69 

rot  of  quinces,  §20,  p45 

-spot  canker,  §6,  p69 

Tartarian  cherry,  §20,  p7 

Blenheim  apricot,  §20,  p25 
Blight,  Fire,  §6,  p74 

of  pear  trees.  Crater,  §8,  p43 


INDEX 


XI 


Blight  of  pears,  Fire,  §8,  p28 

of  quinces,  Leaf,  §20,  p44 

on  quinces,  Fire,  or  pear,  §20,  p43 

Pear-leaf,  §8,  p32 

Twig,  §6,  p74: 
Blister  mite,  Leaf-,  §6,  p57 

mite  on  pears.  Leaf-,  §8,  p37 
Bloodgood  pear,  §8,  pll 
Blooming  period  of  different  varieties  of  pears, 

Table  of,  §9,  pl7 
Blossoms,  Frost  injury  to  apple,  §G,  p4 
Blotch,  Apple,  §6,  p67 

Sooty,  §6,  p71 
Blue  mole,  §6,  p70 

Pearmain  apple,  §3,  pl7 
Bon  Chretien  pear,  Williams,  §8,  pl3 
Bordeaux  injury,  §6,  p80 

mixture,  §2,  p22 

nozzle,  §2,  p40 
Borer   on   quinces.    Round-headed    apple-tree, 
§20,  p42 

Shot-hole,  §6,  p60 
Borers,  Apple-tree,  §6,  p23 

on  pears,  §8,  p40 
Bosc  pear,  §8,  p20 
Bourgeat  quince,  §20,  p35 
Box  presses,  Apple-,  §7,  p38 
Boxes,  Apple,  §7,  ppll,  22 

Packing  of  apples  in,  §7,  p29 
Branch  layering,  §1,  pl9 
Breaking  of  pear  trees,  §8,  p42 

of  trees,  §6,  p79 
Brown  mite,  §6,  p52 

rot  of  cherries,  §20,  p21 

rot  of  pears,  §8,  p33 

-tailed  moth,  §6,  p43 
Brusseler  Braune  cherry,  §20,  p3 
Bucculatrix,  Apple-tree,  §6,  p51 
Buckeling  of  apples  in  barrels,  §7,  p26 
Bucket  spray  pump,  §2,  p30 
Bud  moth,  §6,  p47 
Budding,  Propagation  by,  §1,  p28 
Buds,  Frost  injury  to  apple,  §6,  p3 

Killing  of  fruit,  §6,  pi 
Buffalo  treehopper,  §6,  p58 
Butter,  Apple,  §7,  p60 


Canker,  Black-spot,  §6,  p69 

European,  §6,  p70 

Illinois,  §6,  p70 

Pacific-coast,  §6,  p69 

worms,  §6,  p40 
Canned  apples,  §7,  p60 
Capital  required  for  an  orchard,  §4,  p3 
Case  bearer.  Cigar,  §6,  p49 

bearer,  Pistol,  §6,  p4S 


Catch  crops,  §5,  p6 

crops  for  pears,  §9,  p26 
Caterpillar,  Apple-tree  tent,  §6,  p37 

Red-humped  apple,  §G.  p43 

Yellow-necked  apple,  §6,  p42 
Cayuga  Red  Streak  apple,  §3,  pl2 
Cedar  apples,  §6,  p72 

rust,  §6,  p71 
Centennial  cherry,  §20,  pC 
Chambers  pear,  §8,  plO 
Champion  quince,  §20,  p33 
Cherries,  Amarelle,  §20,  pi 

Bigarreau,  §20,  p2 

Classes  of,  §20,  pi 

Duke,  §20,  p2 

Fertihzation  of,  §20,  pl6 

Fungous  diseases  of,  §20,  p21 

Grading  of,  §20,  pl8 

Harvesting  of,  §20,  pl8 

Heart,  or  gean,  §20,  p2 

Marketing  of,  §20,  pl9 

Mazzard,  §20,  p2 

Morello,  §20,  pi 

Packing  of,  §20,  pl8 

Pruning  of,  §20,  pl6 

Sour,  §20,  pi 

Spraying  of,  §20,  pl7 

Storage  of,  §20,  pl9  , 

Subacid,  §20,  p2 

Sweet,  §20,  p2 

Varieties  of  sour,  §20,  p3 

Varieties  of  subacid,  §20,  p.5 

Varieties  of  sweet,  §20,  pG 
Cherry  aphis.  Black,  §'20,  p20 

fruit  fly,  §20,  p20 

nursery  trees,  §20,  pl2 

orchard.  Size,  location,  and  site  of  a,  §20,  plO 

orchards.  Cultivation  of,  §20,  pl5 

orchards.  Renovation  of  old,  §20,  pl7 

pests  and  injuries,  §20,  p20 

trees.  Planting  of,  §20,  pl4 
Chretien  pear,  Williams  Bon,  §8,  pl3 
Cicada,  Periodical,  §G,  p59 
Cider,  Apple,  §7,  p61 
Cigar  case  bearer,  §6,  p49 
Cincincis  pear,  §8,  p27 
Clairgeau  pear,  §8,  p20 
Clamp,  Hose,  §2,  p43 
Clapp  Favorite  pear,  §8,  pl3 
Cleft  grafting,  §1,  p20 

Climatic    conditions    on    pears.    Influence    of, 
§9,  p6 

injuries  of  cherries,  §20,  p23 
Climbing  cutworms,  §6,  p44 
Clitocybose,  §6,  p76 
Cloud,  §6,  p71 
Clover  aphis,  §G,  p57 


xu 


INDEX 


Clover  mite,  §6,  p52 
Codling  moth,  §6,  p31 

moth  on  pears,  §8,  p39 

moth  on  quinces,  §20,  p42 
Cold  storage  of  apples.  Commercial,  §7,  p41 

storage  of  apples.  Farm,  §7,  p42 
Colorado  section,  Varieties  of  apples  for  the, 

§4,  pl4 
Columbia  pear,  §8,  p23 
Combination  systems  of  jJlanting,  §4,  p29 
Comice  pear,  §8,  p20 
Compressed-air  hand  sprayer,  §2,  p32 

-air  sprayers,  §2,  p39 
Contact  insecticides,  §2,  ppl,  6 
Cookers,  Lime-sulphur,  §2,  p9 
Copper  carbonate,  Ammoniacal,  §2,  p25 

-sulphate  solution,  §2,  p25 
Cover  crops,  §5,  plO 

crops  for  pears,  §9,  p26 

crops  for  quinces,  §20,  p40 

crops,  Leguminous,  §5,  pl3 

crops.  Non-leguminous,  §5,  pl4 

crops.  Time  of  sowing,  §5,  pll 

crops.  Time  to  plow  under,  §5,  pl2 
Cranberry  apple,  §3,  p33 
Crater  blight  of  pear  trees,  §8,  p43 
Crates,  Apple,  §7,  pH 
Crops,  Catch,  §5,  p6 

Cover,  §5,  plO 

Leguminous  cover,  §5,  pl3 

Non-leguminous  cover,  §5,  pl4 

Time  of  sowing  cover,  §5,  pll 

Time  to  plow  under  cover,  §5,  pl2 
Crown  gall,  §6,  p77 

gall  on  pears,  §8,  p33 

grafting,  §1,  pp20,  25 
Cultivation  of  cherry  orchards,  §20,  pl5 

of  quinces,  §20,  p40 
Curculio,  Apple,  §6,  p37 

on  cherries.  Plum,  §20,  p20 

Plum,  §6,  p36 

Quince,  §20,  p43 
Cut-off,  §2,  p43 
Cutting,  §1,  pl4 

Propagation  by,  §1,  pl4 
Cuttings,  Hardwood,  §1,  pl4 

Heel,  §1,  pl4 

Mallet,  §1,  ppl4,  15 

Root.  §1,  ppl4,  17 

Simple,  §1,  pl4 

Single-eye,  §1,  ppl4,  15 
Cutworms,  Climbing,  §6,  p44 


D 


Danas  Hovey  pear,  §8,  p21 
Dehcious  apple,  §3,  p36 
Deman  quince.  Van,  §20,  p35 


Dew  point,  §6,  p6 

point.  Table  of  determination  of  the,  §6,  p7 
Diagonal  pack  for  apples,  §7,  p33 
Diel  pear,  §8,  p23 

Dipping  of  apple  nursery  trees,  §4,  p39 
Diseases,  Apple,  §6,  p61 

of  cherries.  Fungous,  §20,  p21 

of  pears,  §8,  p28 
Disk  nozzle,  §2,  p41 
Distillate  oils,  §2,  pp6,  19 
Districts,  Pear,  §8,  pi 
Dormant    period    of    plants.    Injuries    during, 

§6,  pi 
Double-action  spray  pump,  §2,  p34 
Drainage   for   pear   orchards,   Air   and   water, 

§9,  p9 
Dressings  for  wounds,  §1,  p47 
Drouard  pear,  §8,  pl9 
Drying  of  apricots,  §20,  p30 
Duchess  d'  Angouleme  pear,  §8,  pl7 

of  Oldenburg  apple,  §3,  p7 
Duke  cherries,  §20,  p2 

cherry.  May,  §20,  p6 
Dwarf  pears,  §8,  p8 
Dyehouse  cherry,  §20,  p3 

E 

Early  Harvest  apple,  §3,  p7 

Harvest  of  Kentucky  pear,  §8,  plO 

Richmond  cherry,  §20,  p5 
Easter  Beurre  pear,  §8,  p25 
Elevation  for  pear  orchards,  §9,  p8 

of  orchard  site,  §4,  p7 
Elton  cherry,  §20,  p6 
Emulsion,  Kerosene,  §2,  pp6,  19 
English  Morello  cherry,  §20,  p3 
Esopus  Spitzenburg  apple,  §3,  p34 
Essentials  of  fruit- culture,  §1,  pi;  §2,  pi 
Eugene  cherry,  §20,  p5 
European  canker,  §6,  p70 

grain  aphis,  §6,  p57 

group  of  pears,  §8,  p7 

group  of  pears.  Varieties  of,  §8,  plO 
Evaporated  apples,  §7,  p56 
Exposure  for  pear  orchards,  §9,  p9 

of  site,  §4,  p9 
Extension  rod,  §2,  p42 
Extensive  pruning,  §1,  p41 

F 

Facing  of  apple  barrels,  §7,  p25 

Fall  and  winter  varieties  of  apples,  §3,  p9 

Pippin  apple,  §3,  p9 

web  worm,  §6,  p39 
Fameuse  apple,  §3,  pl3 
Fertilization  of  apple  orchards,  §5,  p37 

of  apricot  orchards,  §20,  p27 


INDEX 


Xlll 


Fertilization  of  cherries,  §20,  pl6 

of  pear  orchards,  §9,  p32 

of  quinces,  §20,  p40 

of  young  apple  trees,  §5,  p41 
Fertilizers,  Time  of  applying,  §5,  p40 
Fillers  in  apple  orchard,  Use  of,  §4,  p31 

Peaches  as,  §4,  p33 

Pears  as,  §4,  p33 

Removal  of,  §4,  p34 

Small  fruits  as,  §4,  p33 
Fire  blight,  §6,  p74 

blight  on  pears,  §8,  p28 

blight  on  quinces,  §20,  p43 
Flat-headed  apple-tree  borer,  §6,  p25 
Flemish  pear,  §8,  pl3 
Fly  speck,  §6,  p71 
Forelle  pear,  §8,  p23 
Framework  of  apple  trees,  §5,  p2G 
Frog  eye,  §6,  p69 
Frost,  §6,  p6 

injuries.  Means  of  preventing,  §6,  pl5 

injuries  on  pears,  §8,  p40 

injuries.  Prevention  of,  §6,  p6 

injury  to  apple  blossoms,  §6,  p4 

injury  to  apple  buds,  §6,  p3 

injury  to  young  apples,  §6,  p5 

Prediction  of,  §6,  p6 
Frosts,  Table  of  dates  of  late  spring  and  early 

autumn,  §6,  p9. 
Fruit,  Advertising  of,  §7,  p56 

buds.  Killing  of,  §6,  pi 

culture.  Essentials  of,  §1,  pi;  §2,  pi 

fly.  Cherry,  §20,  p20 

growing,  Market  factors  affecting,  §1,  plO 

growing.  Natural  factors  affecting,  §1,  p3 

of  apple.  Terms  applying  to,  §3,  pi 

pit,  §6,  p74 

plants,  Propagation  of,  §1,  pl3 

plants,  Pruning  of,  §1,  p31 

spot  of  apples,  §6,  p72 

spot  of  quinces,  §20,  p44 

-tree  bark  beetle,  §6,  pGO 

-tree  bark  beetle  on  pears,  §8,  p39 

-tree  leaf  roller,  §6,  p50 
Fungicides,  §2,  p21 

and  insecticides.  Combined,  §2,  p28 
Fungous  diseases  of  cherries,  §20,  p21 


Gall,  Crown,  §6,  p77 

on  pears.  Crown,  §8,  p33 
Gano  apple,  §3,  p40 
Garber  pear,  §8,  p27 
Gas-power  sprayer,  §2,  p36 
Gasoline-power  sprayers,  §2,  p37 
Gean,  or  heart,  cherries,  §20,  p2 
Genet  apple,  §3,  p45 


Geniton  apple,  §3,  p4.5 
Giffard  pear,  §8,  pll 
Gipsy  moth,  §6,  p44 
Girdling,  §6,  p78 

of  pear  trees,  §8,  p41 
Glout  Morceau  pear,  §8,  p21 
Golden  Russet  apple,  §3,  p50 

Russet  pear,  §8,  p28 
Governor  Wood  cherry,  §20,  plO 
Grading,  Importance  of  careful.  §7,  p55 

of  apples,  §7,  pl4 

of  apples,  Method  of,  §7,  p20 

of  apricots,  §20,  p29 

of  cherries,  §20,  plS 

of  pears,  §9,  p37 

of  quinces,  §20,  p41 
Grafting,  §1.  pp20,  27 

Bark,  §1,  pp20,  25 

Cleft,  §1,  p20 

Crown,  §1,  pp20,  25 

Kerf,  §1,  pp20,  25 

Piece-root,  §1,  p27 

Propagation  by,  §1,  p20 

Root,  §1,  p20 

Splice,  §1,  pp20,  27 

Stem,  §1,  p20 

Top,  §1,  p20 

wax,  §1,  p22 

Whip,  §1,  pp20,  26 

Whole-root,  §1,  p27 
Grain  aphis,  European,  §6,  p57 
Gravenstein  apple,  §3,  p9 
Green  apple  aphis,  §6,  p55 

apple  aphis  on  pears,  §8,  p39 

apple  louse,  §6,  p55 

Newton  apple,  §3,  p38 
Greening  apple,  §3,  p37 
Grimes  apple,  §3,  p51 

Growth,  Pruning  to  regulate  vigor  of,  §5,  pl9 
Grubbing  hoe,  §4,  p44 

H 

Hand  sprayer.  Compressed-air,  §2,  p32 

sprays,  §2,  p30 
Hardwood  cuttings,  §1,  pl4 
Hardy  pear,  §8,  pl5 

Harvest  of  Kentucky  pear.  Early,  §8,  plO 
Harvesting  of  apples,  §7,  pi 

of  apricots,  §20,  p28 

of  cherries,  §20,  pl8 

of  pears,  §9,  p35 

of  quinces,  §20,  p41 
Head,  Pruning  for  open,  §5,  p27 

Pruning  for  pyramidal,  §5,  p27 
Heads,  Types  of,  §5,  p21 
Heart,  or  gean,  cherries,  §20,  p2 
Heating,  Orchard,  §G,  plG 


XIV 


INDEX 


Heel  cuttings,  §1,  pl4 

Hellebore,  §2,  ppl,  5 

Hexagonal  system  of  planting,  §4,  p28 

High-headed  apple  trees,  §5,  p21 

-headed  trees,  §1,  p39 
Hillside  apple,  §3,  p30 
Hoe,  Grubbing,  §4,  p44 
Hold-over  blight  of  pears,  §8,  p29 
Home  propagation  of  apple  trees,  §4,  pl9 
Hoop  follower,  §7,  p29 
Hortense  cherry,  §20,  p5 
Hose,  §2,  p43 

clamp,  §2,  p43 
House,  Packing,  §7,  p21 
Houses,  Apple  storage,  §7,  p43 
Hovey  pear,  Danas,  §8,  p21 
Howell  pear,  §8,  pl7 
Hubbardston  apple,  §3,  pl4 
Huntsman  apple,  §3,  p51 
Hydrometer,  §2,  pl5 

readings  for  liquids  heavier  than  water. 
Table  of  comparison  of  Baume  and  specific 
gravity,  §2,  pl6 


Illinois  canker,  §6,  p70 
Ingram  apple,  §3,  p48 
Injuries,  Apple  pests  and,  §6,  pi 

Apricot  pests  and,  §20,  p28 

Cherry  pests  and,  §20,  p20 

during  dormant  period  of  plants,  §6.  pi 

during  the  period  of  visible  activity  of  plants, 
§6,  p3 

on  pears,  Frost,  §8,  p40 

Pear  pests  and,  §8,  p28 

Prevention  of  frost,  §6,  p6 

Quince  pests  and,  §20,  p42 
Injury,  Bordeaux,  §6,  p60 

Lime-sulphur,  §6,  pSl 

Spray,  §6,  p60 
Insecticides,  §2,  pi 

and  fungicides.  Combined,  §2,  p28 

Contact,  §2,  ppl,  6 

Poisonous,  §2,  pi 
Insects  attacking  cherries,  §20,  p20 

attacking  pears,  §8,  p33 

of  the  apple,  §6,  p23 
Intercropping  of  quinces,  §20,  p40 
Irrigation  to  prevent  frost  injury,  §6,  pl5 


Jacobs  Sweet  apple,  §3,  pi 7 

Japan  Golden  Russet  pear,  §8,  p28 

Jelly,  Apple,  §7,  p60 

Jersey  pear,  Louise  Bonne  de,  §8,  pl9 

Jonathan  apple,  §3,  p35 

Josephine  de  Malines  pear,  §8,  pl9 


K 

Kentucky  pear.  Early  Harvest  of,  §8,  plO 
Kerf  grafting,  §1,  pp20,  25 
Kerosene  emulsion,  §2,  pp6,  19 
Kettle,  Steam-jacketed,  §2,  pl7 
Kieffer  pear,  §8,  p25 

Killing  frosts.  Factors  affecting  the  occurrence 
of,  §6,  p8 

of  fruit  buds,  §6,  pi 

of  roots,  §6,  p3 

of  twigs  and  large  stems,  §6,  pi 
King  apple,  §3,  pl5 

David  apple,  §3,  p39 
Knapsack  sprayer,  §2,  p30 
Knives,  Pruning,  §1,  p46 
Knot  of  cherries;  Black,  §20,  p21 
Koonce  pear,  §8,  pll 


Labels  for  apple  packages,  §7,  p52 
Ladders  for  pruning,  §1,  p46 

Picking,  §7,  p6 
Lambert  cherry,  §20,  p7 
Lawrence  pear,  §8,  p23 
Layer,  §1,  pl7 
Layering,  Branch,  §1,  pl9 

Mound,  §1,  pl9 

Propagation  by,  §1,  pl7 

Tip,  §1,  pis 

Vine,  §1,  pl8 
Lead,  Arsenate  of,  §2,  pi 
Leaf  blight  of  quinces,  §20,  p44 

blight.  Pear-,  §8.  p32 

-blister  mite,  §6,  d57 

-blister  mite  on  pears,  §8,  p37 

miner,  Apple,  §6,  p51 

roller.  Fruit-tree,  §6,  p50 

spot,  §6,  p69 

spot.  Pear-,  §8,  p32 

surface.  Pruning  to  reduce,  §5,  pl8 
LeConte  pear,  §8,  p27 
Leguminous  cover  crops,  §5,  pl3 
Lesser  apple  worm,  §6,  p34 
Limbertwig  apple,  §3,  pl2 
Lime,  Arsenite  of,  §2,  ppl,  4 

-sulphur,  §2,  pp6,  26 

-sulphur  cookers,  §2,  p9 

-sulphur  injury,  §6,  p81 

-sulphur.  Self-boiled,  §2,  ppll,  16.  26 
Lincoln  pear,  §8,  pl7 
Locust,  Seventeen-year.  §6,  p59 
London  purple,  §2,  ppl,  5 
Long-stemmed  Montmorency  cherry.  §20,  p3 
Louis  Philippe  cherry,  §20,  p4 
Louise  pear,  §8,  pl9 
Louse,  Green  apple,  §6,  p55 

Oyster-shell  bark,  §6,  p29 


INDEX 


XV 


Low-headed  apple  trees,  §5,  p21 
-headed  trees,  §1,  p39 

M 

Machinery,  Spraying,  §2,  p29 

Mackintosh  apple,  §3,  pl3 

Maggot,  Apple,  §6,  p34 

Magnifique  cherry,  §20,  p5 

Maiden  Blush  apple,  §3,  p8 

Malines  pear,  §8,  pl9 

Mallet  cuttings,  §1,  ppl4,  15 

Mammoth  Black  Twig  apple,  §3,  p45 

Mann  apple,  §3,  p55 

Market      factors      affecting      fruit      growing, 

§1,  plO 
Marketing  of  apples,  §7,  p48 

of  apricots,  §20,  p29 

of  cherries,  §20,  pl9 

of  pears,  §9,  p40 

of  quinces,  §20,  p41 
Markets,  Proximity  to,  §4,  plO 
Mattock,  §4,  p44 
May  Duke  cherry,  §20,  p6 
Mazzard  cherries,  §20,  p2 
Meech  quince,  §20,  p34 

Mice,  Protecting  quince  trees  from,  §20,  p41 
Mildew,  §6,  p77 

on  cherries.  Powdery,  §20,  p22 
Miner,  Apple  leaf,  §6,  p51 
Miscible  oils,  §2,  pp6,  16 
Missouri  apple,  §3,  p23 

quince,  §20,  p35 

section.       Varieties     of     apples      for      the, 
§4,  pl4 
Mite,  Brown,  §6,  p52 

Clover,  §6,  p52 

Leaf-blister,  §6,  p57 

on  pears.  Leaf-blister,  §8,  p37 
Mole,  Blue,  §6,  p70 
Montmorency  cherry,  §20,  p3 

Ordinaire  cherry,  §20,  p3 
Montreuil  cherry,  §20,  p6 
Moorpark  apricot,  §20,  p24 
Morceau  pear,  Glout,  §8,  p21 
Morello  cherries,  §20,  ppl,  3 
Moth,  Brown-tailed,  §6,  p43 

Bud,  §6,  p47 

Codling,  §6,  p31 

Gipsy,  §6,  p44 

on  pears.  Codling,  §8,  p39 
Moths,  Tussock,  §6,  p45 
Mound  layering,  §1,  pl9 
Mount  Vernon  pear,  §8,  p23 
Mulch  culture  for  apples,  §5,  pl7 

culture  for  pears,  §9,  p26 
Mulching  to  prevent  frost  injuries,  §6,  pl5 
Mummies,  §6,  p63 


N 
Napoleon  cherry,  §20,  p7 

National  Apple  Shippers  Association,   §7,  pl5 
Natural  propagation,  §1,  pl3 
Neck  ringing  on  pears,  §8,  p40 
Nelis  pear.  Winter,  §8,  p25 
Newcastle  apricot,  §20,  p25 
New  York  section.  Varieties  of  apples  for  the, 

§4,  pl3 
Non-leguminous  cover  crops,  §5,  pl4 
Northern-grown  apple  nursery  frees,  §4,  pl7 

Spy  apple,  §3,  pl5 
Northwest,  Varieties  of  apples  for  the,  §4,  pl5 
Northwestern  apple,  §3,  p37 
Nozzle,  Bordeaux,  §2,  p40 

Disk,  §2,  p41 

Vermorel,  §2,  p40 
Nursery  stock.  Selection  of  apple,  §4,  pl5 

trees.  Age  of  apple,  §4,  pl7 

trees.  Apricot,  §20,  p25 

trees,  Cherry,  §20,  pl2 

trees    for    planting.    Preparation    of    apple, 
§4,  p.38 

trees.  Procuring  of  pear,  §9,  pl2 

trees  propagated  by  various  methods.  Value 
of  apple,  §4,  pl7 

trees,  Quince,  §20,  p37 

O 

Offset  pack  for  apples,  §7,  p35 
Oils,  Distillate,  §2,  pp6,  19 

Miscible,  §2,  pp6,  16 
Oldenburg  apple,  §3,  p7 
Olivet  cherry,  §20,  p6 
Open  head.  Pruning  for,  §5,  p29 

-headed  apple  trees,  §5,  p23 
Orange  quince,  §20,  p32 
Orchard,  Capital  required  for  an,  §4,  p3 

establishment,  Quince,  §20,  p36 

heating,  §6,  pl6 

Increasing  the  size  of  the,  §4,  p5 

Location  for  a  pear,  §9,  p3 

management,  Pear,  §9,  p23 

site.  Elevation  of,  §4,  p7 

Size  for  a  pear,  §9,  pi     ■ 

Size  of,  §4,  pi 

Soil  suitable  for  apple,  §4,  p6 
Orchards,  Management  of  apple,  §5,  pi 

Renovation  of  old  apple,  §5,  p41 

Soil  treatment  for  renovated,  §5,  p49 

Spraying  methods  for  renovated,  §5,  poO 

Tillage  of  bearing  apple,  §5,  p4 

Tillage  of  young  apple,  §.5,  p2 
Oriental  group  of  pears,  §8,  p7 

group  of  pears,  Varieties  of,  §8,  p25 
Ortley  apple,  §3,  pl7 
Ostheim  cherry,  §20,  p4 


XVI 


INDEX 


Oyster-shell  bark  louse,  §6,  p29 
-shell  scale,  §6,  p29 
-shell  scale  on  pears,  §8,  p40 


Pacific  coast  canker,  §6,  p69 

Packages  for  apples.  Use  of  clean,  §7,  p55 

Packing  house,  §7,  p21 

Importance  of  careful,  §7,  p55 

of  apples,  §7,  p21 

of  apples  in  barrels,  §7,  p24 

of  apples  in  baskets,  §7,  p40 

of  apples  in  boxes,  §7,  p29 

of  apricots,  §20,  p29 

of  cherries,  §20,  pl8 

of  pears,  §9,  p37 

of  quinces,  §20,  p41 

table,  Apple,  §7,  pp27,  30,  32 
Pale  rot  of  quinces,  §20,  p45 
Palmer  worm,  §6,  p52 
Paris  green,  §2,  ppl,  3 
Patrick  Barry  pear,  §8,  p25 
Peach  apricot,  §20,  p25 
Peaches  as  fillers,  §4,  p33 
Pear  barrel,  §7,  p21 

blight  on  quinces,  §20,  p43 

culture,  §8,  pi 

districts,  §8,  pi 

-leaf  blight,  §8,  p32 

-leaf  spot,  §8,  p32 

-orchard  management,  §9,  p23 

orchard,  Location  for  a,  §9,  p3 

orchard.  Size  for  a,  §9,  ppl,  7 

orchards.  Air  drainage  for,  §9,  p9 

orchards.  Elevation  for,  §9,  p8 

orchards.  Exposure  for,  §9,  p9 

orchards.  Fertilization  of,  §9,  p32 

orchards.  Renovation  of  neglected,  §9,  p33 

orchards.  Site  for,  §9,  p7 

orchards.  Tillage  of  bearing,  §9,  p25 

orchards.  Tillage  of  young,  §9,  p23 

orchards.  Water  drainage  for,  §9,  p9 

pests  and  injuries,  §8,  p28 

psylla,  §8,  p34 

quince,  §20,  p36   ■ 

rust,  §8,  p33 

scab,  §8,  p31 

slug,  §8,  p38 

thrips,  §8,  p35 

trees.  Planting  of,  §9,  pl4 

trees,  Procuring  of,  §9,  plO 

trees.  Propagation  of,  §9,  plO 

trees,  Spraying  of,  §9,  p34 
Pears  as  fillers,  §4,  p33 

Botanical  classification  of,  §8,  p7 

Catch  crops  and  cover  crops  for,  §9,  p26 

Commercial  classification  of,  §8,  p8 


Pears,  Diseases  of,  §8,  p28 

Dwarf,  §8,  p8 

European  group  of,  §8,  p7 

for  different  states,  Varieties  of,  §8,  p2 

Grading  of,  §9,  p37 

Harvesting  of,  §9,  p35 

Influence  of  climatic  conditions  on,  §9,  p6 

Insects  attacking,  §8,  p33 

Marketing  of,  §9,  p40 

Oriental  group  of,  §8,  p7 

Packing  of,  §9,  p37 

Sod  and  mulch  culture  for,  §9,  p2.5 

Standard,  §8,  plO 

Storing  of,  §9,  p40 

suitable  to  a  location.  Varieties  of,  §9,  p9 

Table  of  blooming  period  of  different  vari- 
eties of,  §9,  pl7 

Thinning  of,  §9,  p33 

Varieties  of,  §8,  plO 

Varieties  of  European  group  of,  §8,  plO 

Varieties  of  Oriental  group  of,  §8,  p25 
Periodical  cicada,  §6,  p59 
Pests  and  injuries,  Apple,  §6,  pi 

and  injuries.  Apricot,  §20,  p28 

and  injuries.  Cherry,  §20,  p20 

and  injuries.  Pear,  §8,  p28 

and  injuries.  Quince,  §20,  p42 
Pewaukee  apple,  §3,  p50 
Philippe  cherry,  §20,  p4 
Pickers,  Management  of,  §7,  pl3 
Picking  apples.  Wagon  used  in,  §7,  p9 

ladders,  §7,  p6 

Methods  of,  §7,  pll 

of  apples,  §7,  pi 

of  pears,  §9,  p35 

receptacles,  §7,  pi 

Time  of,  §7,  pl2 
Piece-root  grafting,  §1,  p27 
Pink  rot,  §6,  p67 
Pippin  apple.  Fall,  §3,  p9 
Pistol  case  bearer,  §6,  p48 
Planting  board,  §4,  p41 

Combination  system  of,  §4,  p29 

for  apple  trees.  Time  of,  §4,  pl9 

Hexagonal  system  of,  §4,  p28 

of  apple  trees,  §4,  pl9 

of  apples.  Methods  of,  §4,  p35 

of  apricot  trees,  §20,  p26 

of  cherry  trees,  §20,  pl4 

of  pear  trees,  §9,  pl4 

of  quince  trees,  §20,  p38 

Preparation  of  soil  for,  §4,  p36 

Quincunx  system  of,  §4,  p27 

Square  system  of,  §4,  p26 

Tools  used  in,  §4,  p44 
Plum  curculio,  §6,  p36 

curculio  on  cherries,  §20,  p20 


INDEX 


xvii 


Poisonous  insecticides,  §2,  pi 
Population,  Location  in  respect  to,  §1,  plO 
Potassium  sulphide,  §2,  p26 
Potato  barrel,  §7,  p21 
Pound  Sweet  apple,  §3,  pl4 
Powdery  mildew  on  cherries,  §20,  p22 
Power  sprayers,  §2,  p35 
President  Drouard  pear,  §8,  pl9 
Presses,  Apple  box,  §7,  p38 
Price  of  apples.  Maintaining  the,  §7,  p54 
Propagation,  Artificial,  §1,  pl4 
by  budding,  §1,  p28 

by  cutting,  §1,  pl4 

by  division,  §1,  pl3 

by  grafting,  §1,  p20 

by  layering,  §1,  pl7 

by  seeds,  §1,  pll 

Natural,  §1,  pll 

of  apple  trees.  Home,  §4,  pl9 

of  cherry  trees,  §20,  pl2 

of  fruit  plants,  §1,  pl3 

of  pear  trees,  §9,  plO 

of  quinces,  §20,  p36 
Propeller  agitator,  §2,  p44 
Pruner,  Apple-tree,  §6,  p61 
Pruning,  Details  of,  §5,  p33 

Effects  of,  §1,  p34 

Extensive,  §1,  p41 

for  open  head,  §5,  p29 

for  pyramidal  head,  §5,  p27 

knives,  §1,  p46 

Ladders  for,  §1,  p46 

Method  of,  §1,  p37 

of  apple  trees,  §5,  pl8 

of  apricot  trees,  §20,  p26 

of  bearing  apple  trees,  §5,  p31 

of  cherries,  §20,  pl6 

of  fruit  plants,  §1,  p31 

of  pear  nursery  trees,  §9,  pl8 

of  pear  trees,  §9,  p26 

of  quinces,  §20,  p39 

Principles  of,  §1,  p31 

Purpose  of,  §1,  p31 

Repressive,  §1,  p41 

saws,  §1,  p44 

shears,  §1,  p42 

Styles  of,  §1,  p41 
Time  of,  §5,  p20 

to  control  shape,  §5,  pi  9 
to  control  size,  §5,  pl9 
to  reduce  leaf  surface,  §5,  pl8 
to  regulate  vigor  of  growth,  §5,  pl9 
Tools  for,  §1,  p42 
Psylla,  Pear,  §8,  p34 
Pump,  Bucket  spray,  §2,  p30 

Double  action  spray,  §2,  p34 
Pumpkin  Sweet  apple,  §3,  pl4 


Pyramidal  head.  Pruning  for,  §5,  p27 

headed  apple  trees,  §5,  p23 
Pyrus  communis,  §8,  p7 
sinensis,  §8,  p7 

Q 

Quince  barrel,  §7,  p21 

curcuUo,  §20,  p43 

nursery  trees,  §20,  p37 

-orchard  establishment,  §20,  p36 

pests  and  injuries,  §20,  p42 

rust,  §20,  p46 

trees  from  mice,  Protecting,  §20,  p41 

trees,  Planting  of,  §20,  p38 

trees.  Winter-killed,  §20,  p41 
Quinces,  Commercial  possibilities  of,  §20,  p31 

Cover  crops  for,  §20,  p40 

Culcivation  of,  §20,  p40 

Fertilization  of,  §20,  p40 

Grading  and  packing  of,  §20,  p41 

Harvesting  of,  §20,  p41 

Marketing  of,  §20,  p41 

Propagation  of,  §20,  p36 

Pruning  of,  §20,  p39 

Selection  of  varieties  of,  §20,  p36 

Spraying  of,  §20,  p39 

Storage  of,  §20,  p42 

Varieties  of,  §20,  p32 
Quincunx  system  of  planting,  §4,  p27 

K 

Railroad  worm,  Apple,  §6,  p34 

Ralls  apple,  §3,  p45 

Rambo  apple,  §3,  p27 

Rea  quince,  §20,  p33 

Red  Astrachan  apple,  §3,  p7 

-humped  apple  caterpillar,  §6,  p43 
June  apple,  §3,  p6 
Reine  Hortense  cherry,  §20,  p5 
Renovated     orchards,     Soil     treatment     for, 
§5,  p49 
orchards.  Spraying  methods  for,  §5,  p50 
Renovating  apricot  orchards,  §20,  p27 
Renovation  of  neglected  pear  orchards,  §9,  p33 
of  old  apple  orchards,  §5,  p41 
of  old  cherry  orchards,  §20,  pl7 
Repressive  pruning,  §1,  p41 
Reproductive  activity,  §1,  p35 
Retail  marketing  of  apples,  §7,  p48 
Rhode  Island  Greening  apple,  §3,  p37 
Ribston  apple,  §3,  p27 
Richmond  cherry,  §20,  p5 
Ringing  on  pears.  Neck,  §8,  p40 
Ripe  rot,  §6,  p62 

rot  of  quinces,  §20,  p45 
Rockport  cherry,  §20,  p7 
Rod,  Extension,  §2,  p42 
Rome  Beauty  apple,  §3,  p42 


XVlll 


INDEX 


Root  cuttings,  §1,  ppl4,  17 

grafting,  §1,  p20 

grafting,  Piece-,  §1,  p27 

grafting,  Whole-,  §1,  p27 

rot,  §6,  p76 

stock,  §1,  pl3 
Roots,  Killing  of,  §6,  p3 
Rosy  apple  aphis,  §6,  p56 
Rot,  Bin,  §6,  p70 

Bitter,  §6,  p62 

Black,  §6,  p69 

of  cherries.  Brown,  §20,  p21 

of  quinces,  Black,  §20,  p45 

of  quinces.  Pale,  §20,  p45 

of  quinces.  Ripe,  §20,  p45 

on  pears.  Brown,  §8,  p33 

Pink,  §6,  p67 

Ripe,  §6,  p62 

Root,  §6,  p76 

Soft,  §6,  p70 
Rough  bark,  §6,  p80 

bark  of  pear  trees,  §8,  p43 
Round-headed  apple-tree  borer,  §6,  p24 

-headed      apple-tree      borer      on      quinces, 
§20,  p42 
Rows,       Planting       of       trees       in      straight, 

§4,  p40 
Roxbury  apple,  §3,  p48 
Royal  Ann  apricot,  §20,  p24 

cherry,  §20,  p7 
Runners,  §1,  pl4 
Russet  pear.  Golden,  §8,  p28 
Rust,  Apple,  §6,  p71 

Cedar,  §6,  p71 

Pear,  §8,  p33 

Quince,  §20,  p46 

S 
Salome  apple,  §3,  p43 
San  Jose  scale  on  apples,  §6,  p27 

Jose  scale  on  cherries,  §20,  p20 

Jose  scale  on  pears,  §8,  p39 

Jose  scale  on  quinces,  §20,  p42 
Saws,  Pruning,  §1,  p44 
Scab,  Apple,  §6,  p64 

Pear,  §8,  p31 
Scald,  Apple,  §6,  p74 

on  cherries.  Sun,  §20,  p23 

on  pears,  Sun,  §8,  p41 

Sun,  §6,  p77 
Scale  on  apples.  Scurfy,  §0,  p31 

on  cherries,  San  Jos6,  §20,  p20 

on  pears.  Oyster-shell,  §8,  p40 

on  pears,  San  Jose,  §8,  p39 

on  pears,  Scurfy,  §8,  p40 

on  quinces,^ San  Josd,  §20,  p42 

Oyster-sheli.  §6,  p29 


Scale,  San  Jose,  §6,  p27 
Scion,  §1,  p20 
Scurfy  scale,  §6,  p31 

scale  on  pears,  §8,  p40 
Seckel  pear,  §8,  plS 

pear.  Winter,  §8,  p21 

pear,  Worden's,  §8,  pl5 
Seeds,  Propagation  by,  §1,  pll 
Seek  apple,  §3,  p35 

Self-boiled  lime  sulphur,  §2,  ppl,  16,  26 
Setting  of  pear  trees,  §9,  p22 
Seventeen-year  locust,  §6,  p59 
Shape,  Pruning  to  control,  §5,  pl9 
Shears,  Pruning,  §1,  p42 
Sheldon  pear,  §8,  pl7 
Shipping  facilities,  §1,  pll 
Short-stemmed  Montmorency  cherry,  §20,  p3 
Shot-hole  borer,  §6,  p60 

-hole  fungus  on  cherries,  §20,  p22 
Simple  cuttings,  §1,  pl4 
Single-eye  cuttings,  §1,  ppl4,  15 
Site,  Elevation  of  orchard,  §4,  p7 

Exposure  of,  §4,  p9 

for  a  cherry  orchard,  §20,  pll 

for  a  pear  orchard,  §9,  p7 

Selection  of,  §4,  p6 
Size,  Pruning  to  control,  §5,  pl9 
Slack      in      apple      barrels,     Prevention     of, 

§7,  p28 
Slope  of  land,  §4,  p8 
Slug,  Pear,  §8,  p38 
Small  fruits  as  fillers,  §4,  p33 
Smith  Cider  apple,  §3,  p33 
Smokehouse  apple,  §3,  p20 
Smudging  to  prevent  frost  injury,  §6,  pl6 
Sod  culture  for  apples,  §5,  pl4 

culture  for  pears,  §9,  p25 
Soft  rot,  §6,  p70 
Soil  for  planting.  Preparation  of,  §4,  p36 

Suitability  of,  §1,  p9 

suitable  for  apple  orchard,  §4,  p6 

treatment  for  renovated  orchards,  §5,  p49 
Soils  for  pear  orchards,  §9,  p7 
Sooty  blotch,  §6,  p71 
Sops  of  Wine  apple,  §3,  p9 
Sour  cherries,  §20,  pi 

cherries.  Varieties  of,  §20,  p3 

sap  of  pear  trees,  §8,  p42 
Southern-grown  apple  nursery  trees,  §4,  pl7 
Spade,  §4,  p44 
Spanish  cherry,  §20,  p7 

Specific     gravity     hydrometer     readings     for 
liquids  heavier  than  water,  Table  of  com- 
parison of  Baume  and,  §2,  pl6 
Spitzenburg  apple,  §3,  p34 
Splice  grafting.  §1,  pp20,  27 
Spot,  Leaf,  §6,  p69 


INDEX 


XIX 


Spot  of  quinces.  Fruit,  §20.  p44 

Pear-leaf,  §8,  p32 
Spotted  apple-tree  borer,  §6,  p24 
Spray  injury,  §6,  p80 

pump.  Bucket,  §2,  p30 

pump.  Double-action,  §2,  p34 
Sprayer,  Compressed-air  hand,  §2,  p32 

Gas-power,  §2,  p36 

Knapsack,  §2,  p30 

Traction,  §2,  p35 
Sprayers,  Barrel,  §2,  p32 

Compressed-air,  §2,  p39 

Gasoline-power,  §2,  p37 

Power,  §2,  p35 
Spraying  machinery,  §2,  p29 

methods  for  renovated  orchards,  §5,  p50 

of  cherries,  §20,  pl7 

of  pear  trees,  §9,  p34 

of  quinces,  §20,  p39 

outiit.  Accessories  for,  §2,  p40 

to  prevent  frost  injury,  §6,  plo 
Sprays  and  their  preparation,  §2,  pi 

Hand,  §2,  p30 
Spring  and  early  autumn  frosts.  Table  of  dates 

of  late,  §6,  p9 
Spy  apple,  §3,  pl5 
Square  system  of  planting,  §4,  p26 
Standard  pears,  §8,  plO 
Stark  apple,  §3,  p55 
Stayman  Winesap  apple,  §3,  p42 
Steam-jacketed  kettle,  §2,  pl7 
Stem  grafting,  §1,  p20 
Stems,  Balling  of  large,  §6,  pi 
Stock,  §1,  p20 
Stolons,  §1,  pl4 
Stool,  §1,  pl9 
Storage  houses,  Apple,  §7,  p43 

of  apples,  §7,  p40 

of  cherries,  §20,  pl9 

of  pears,  §9,  p40 

of  quinces,  §20,  p42 
Straight  pack  for  apples,  §7,  p32 
Straight  rows.  Locating  trees  in,  §4,  p40 
Strainer,  §2,  p8 
Subacid  cherries,  §20,  pp2,  5 
Suda  cherry,  §20,  p5 
Sugar  pear,  §8,  plO 
Sulphur  dust,  §2,  p26 

Lime-,  §2,  p6 
Summer  varieties  of  apples,  §3,  p6 
Sun  scald,  §6,  p77 

scald  on  cherries,  §20,  p23 

scald  on  pears,  §8,  p41 
Suwanee  pear,  §8,  p27 
Sweet  chen-ies,  §20,  p2 

cherries.  Varieties  of,  §20,  p6 
Swinging  agitator,  §2,  p44 


Table,  Apple  packing,  §7,  pp27.  30 

of  blooming  period  of  different  varieties  of 
pears,  §9,  pl7 

of  comparison  of  Baume  and  specific  gravity 
hydrometer  readings  for  liquids  heavier 
than  water,  §2,  pl6 

of  data  concerning  straight  and  diagonal  box 
packs,  §7,  p34 

of  dates  of  late  spring  and  early  autumn 
frosts,  §6,  p9 

of  determination  of  the  dew  point,  §6,  p7 

of  number  of  trees  to  plant  per  acre  by  vari- 
ous systems,  §4,  p25 
Tailing  of  apples  in  barrels,  §7,  p27 
Tartarian  cherry,  §20,  p7 
Temperature,  Influence  of,  §1,  p3 

Injuries  due  to  low,  §6,  pi 
Temperatures  for  storage  of  apples,  §7,  p40 
Tent  caterpillar.  Apple-tree,  §6,  p37 
Terms  applying  to  apple  trees,  §3,  pi 

applying  to  fruit  of   apple,  §3,  pi 
Thinning  of  apples,  §5,  p35 

of  pears,  §9,  p33 
Thrips.  Pear,  §8,  p35 
Tillage  of  bearing  apple  orchards,  §5,  p4 

of  bearing  pear  orchards,  §9,  p25 

of  quinces,  §20,  p40 

of  young  pear  orchards,  §9,  p23 
Tilton  apricot,  §20,  p25 
Time  of  planting  for  apple  trees,  §4,  pi 9 
Tip  layering,  §1,  plS 

Tobacco  extracts  and  decoctions,  §2,  pp6,  21 
Tolman  apple,  §3,  p30 
Tompkins  King  apple,  §3,  pl5 
Tools  for  pruning,  §1,  p42 

used  in  planting,  §4,  p44 
Top  grafting,  §1,  p20 

working  of  apple  trees,  §5,  p50 
Tower,  §2,  p44 
Traction  sprayer,  §2,  p35 
Treehopper,  Buffalo,  §6,  p58 
Trees,  Age  of  apple  nursery,  §4,  pl7 

Apricot  nursery,  §20,  p25 

Breaking  of,  §6,  p79 

Cherry  nursery,  §20,  pl2 

High-headed  and  low-headed,  §1.  p39 

Home  propagation  of  apple,  §4,  pl9 

in  straight  rows.  Locating,  §4,  p40 

Planting  of  appk,  §4,  pl9 

Propagation  of  pear,  §9,  plO 

Pruning  of  apple,  §5,  plS 

Quince  nursery,  §20,  p37 

Selection  of  apple  nursery,  §4,  pl.5 

Terms  applying  to  apple,  §3,  pi 
Trout  pear,  §8,  p23 
Trunk,  §5,  p21 


XX 


INDEX 


Tussock  moths,  §6,  p45 

Twenty-ounce  apple,  §3,  pl2 

Twig  blight,  §6,  p74 

Twigs,  Killing  of,  §6,  pi 

Tyson  pear,  §8,  pl3 

V 

Van  Deman  quince,  §20,  p35 

Varieties  of  apples,  §3,  pi 

of  apples.  Description  of,  §3,  p6 
of  apples.  Fall  and  winter,  §3,  p9 
of  apples  for  the  Colorado  section,  §4,  pl4 
of  apples  for  the  Missouri  section,  §4,  pl4 
of  apples  for  che  New  York  section,  §4,  pl3 
of  apples  for  the  Northwest,  §4,  pl5 
of  apples  for  the  Virginia  section,  §4,  pl3 
of  apples.  Selection  of,  §4,  pll 
of  apples.  Summer,  §3,  p6 
of  apricots,  §20,  p24 
of  cherries.  Selection  of,  §20,  pll 
of  European  groups  of  pears,  §8,  plO 
of  oriental  group  of  pears,  §8,  p25 
of  pears,  §8,  plO 

of  pears  for  different  states,  §8,  p2 
of  pears  suitable  to  a  location,  §9,  p9 
of  pears.  Table  of  blooming  period  of  dif- 
ferent, §9,  pl7 
of  quinces,  §20,  p32 
of  quinces.  Selection  of,  §20,  p36 
of  sour  cherries,  §20,  p3 
of  subacid  cherries,  §20,  p5 
of  sweet  cherries,  §20,  p6 

Vegetative  activity,  §1,  p35 

Veneer  grafting,  §1,  pp20,  27 

Vermont  Beauty  pear,  §8,  pl7 

Vermorel  nozzle,  §2,  p40 

Vine  layering,  §1,  pl8 

Vinegar,  Apple,  §7,  p61 

Virginia  section,  Varieties  of  apples  for,  §4,  pl3 

W 

Wagener  apple,  §3,  p43 

Wagon  used  in  picking  apples,  §7,  p9 

Water  drainage  for  pear  orchards,  §9,  p9 

Influence  of  bodies  of,  §1,  p6 
Wax,  Grafting,  §1,  p22 
Wealthy  apple,  §3,  pl2 


Web  worm,  Fall,  §6,  p39 
Westfield  apple,  §3,  p35 

Seek-No-Further  apple,  §3,  p35 
Whip  grafting,  §1,  pp20,  26 
White  Pearmain  apple,  §3,  p51 
Whitewashing      to      prevent      frost      injury, 

§6,  pl5 
Whole-root  grafting,  §1,  p27 
Wholesale  marketing  of  apples,  §7,  p49 
Williams  Bon  Chretien  pear,  §8,  pl3 
Willow  apple,  §3,  p55 
Wind  break,  §1,  p8 
Winds,  Influence  of,  §1,  p7 
Windsor  cherry,  §20,  p7 
Wine  Apple,  §3,  pl2 
Winesap  apple,  §3,  p41 
Winter  Banana  apple,  §3,  pl9 

-killed  quince  trees,  §20,  p41 

Nelis  pear,  §8,  p25 

Seckel  pear,  §8,  p21 

varieties  of  apples,  Fall  and,  §3,  p9 
Wolf  River  apple,  §3,  plO 
Wood  cherry,  §20,  plO 
Wooly  apple  aphis,  §6,  p52 
Worden  pear,  §8,  pl5 
Worden's  Seckel  pear,  §8,  pl5 
Worm,  Apple  railroad,  §6,  p34 

Fall  web,  §6,  p39 

Lesser  apple,  §6,  p34 

on  quinces.  Bag,  §20,  p43 

Palmer,  §6,  p52 
Worms,  Canker,  §6,  p40 
Wounds,  Dressing  for,  §1,  p47 
Wragg  cherry,  §20,  p5 


Yakima    Valley    Fruit    Growers'  Association, 
§7,  pl6 

Valley  Fruit  Growers'  Association  grades  for 
pears,  §9,  p37 
Yellow  Bellflower  apple,  §3,  pl6 

-necked  apple  caterpillar,  §6,  p42 

Newton  apple,  §3,  p39 

Spanish  cherry,  §20,  p7 

Transparent  apple,  §3,  p6 
York  Imperial  apple,  §3,  p30 


.  :\>^^v^ 


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